evolution and ethics and other essays-第16章

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〃fire〃　with　that　ascribed　by　the　moderns　to　heat；　or　rather　to　that
cause　of　motion　of　which　heat　is　one　expression；　and　a　little
ingenuity　might　find　a　foreshadowing　of　the　doctrine　of　the
conservation　of　energy；　in　the　saying　＇110＇　that　all　the　things　are
changed　into　fire　and　fire　into　all　things；　as　gold　into　goods　and
goods　into　gold。

Note　13　（p。　71）。

Pope's　lines　in　the　Essay　on　Man（Ep。　i。　267…8）；

　　　　　All　are　but　parts　of　one　stupendous　whole；
　　　　　Whose　body　Nature　is；　and　God　the　soul；〃

simply　paraphrase　Seneca's　〃quem　in　hoc　mundo　locum　deus　obtinet；　hunc
in　homine　animus：　quod　est　illic　materia；　id　nobis　corpus　est。〃（Ep。
lxv。　24）；　which　again　is　a　Latin　version　of　the　old　Stoical　doctrine；
＇Greek　phrase　eis　apan　tou　kosou　meros　diekei　o　nous；　kataper　aph　emon
e　psuche＇。

So　far　as　the　testimony　for　the　universality　of　what　ordinary　people
call　〃evil〃　goes；　there　is　nothing　better　than　the　writings　of　the
Stoics　themselves。　They　might　serve；　as　a　storehouse　for　the　epigrams
of　the　ultra…pessimists。　Heracleitus　（circa　500　B。C。）　says　just　as
hard　things　about　ordinary　humanity　as　his　disciples　centuries　later；
and　there　really　seems　no　need　to　seek　for　the　causes　of　this　dark
view　of　life　in　the　circumstances　of　the　time　of　Alexander's
successors　or　of　the　early　Emperors　of　Rome。　To　the　man　with　an
ethical　ideal；　the　world；　including　himself；　will　always　seem　full　of
evil。

Note　14　（P。　73）。

I　use　the　well…known　phrase；　but　decline　responsibility　for　the　libel
upon　Epicurus；　whose　doctrines　＇111＇　were　far　less　compatible　with
existence　in　a　style　than　those　of　the　Cynics。　If　it　were　steadily
borne　in　mind　that　the　conception　of　the　〃flesh〃　as　the　source　of
evil；　and　the　great　saying　〃Initium　est　salutis　notitia　peccati；〃　are
the　property　of　Epicurus；　fewer　illusions　about　Epicureanism　would
pass　muster　for　accepted　truth。

Note　15　（P。　75）。

The　Stoics　said　that　man　was　a　＇Greek　phrase　zoon　logikon　politikon
philallelon＇；　or　a　rational；　a　political；　and　an　altruistic　or
philanthropic　animal。　In　their　view；　his　higher　nature　tended　to
develop　in　these　three　directions；　as　a　plant　tends　to　grow　up　into
its　typical　form。　Since；　without　the　introduction　of　any　consideration
of　pleasure　or　pain；　whatever　thwarted　the　realization　of　its　type　by
the　plant　might　be　said　to　be　bad；　and　whatever　helped　it　good；　so
virtue；　in　the　Stoical　sense；　as　the　conduct　which　tended　to　the
attainment　of　the　rational；　political；　and　philanthropic　ideal；　was
good　in　itself；　and　irrespectively　of　its　emotional　concomitants。

Man　is　an　〃animal　sociale　communi　bono　genitum。〃　The　safety　of　society
depends　upon　practical　recognition　of　the　fact。　〃Salva　autem　esse
societas　nisi　custodia　et　amore　partium　non　possit；〃　says　Seneca。　（De。
Ira；　ii。　31。）

Note　16　（P。　75）。

The　importance　of　the　physical　doctrine　of　the　Stoics　lies　in　its
clear　recognition　of　the　universality　＇112＇　of　the　law　of　causation；
with　its　corollary；　the　order　of　nature：　the　exact　form　of　that　order
is　an　altogether　secondary　consideration。

Many　ingenious　persons　now　appear　to　consider　that　the　incompatibility
of　pantheism；　of　materialism；　and　of　any　doubt　about　the　immortality
oxf　the　soul；　with　religion　and　morality；　is　to　be　held　as　an
axiomatic　truth。　I　confess　that　I　have　a　certain　difficulty　in
accepting　this　dogma。　For　the　Stoics　were　notoriously　materialists　and
pantheists　of　the　most　extreme　character；　and　while　no　strict　Stoic
believed　in　the　eternal　duration　of　the　individual　soul；　some　even
denied　its　persistence　after　death。　Yet　it　is　equally　certain　that　of
all　gentile　philosophies；　Stoicism　exhibits　the　highest　ethical
development；　is　animated　by　the　most　religious　spirit；　and　has　exerted
the　profoundest　influence　upon　the　moral　and　religious　development　not
merely　of　the　best　men　among　the　Romans；　but　among　the　moderns　down　to
our　own　day。

Seneca　was　claimed　as　a　Christian　and　placed　among　the　saints　by　the
fathers　of　the　early　Christian　Church；　and　the　genuineness　of　a
correspondence　between　him　and　the　apostle　Paul　has　been　hotly
maintained　in　our　own　time；　by　orthodox　writers。　That　the　letters；　as
we　possess　them；　are　worthless　forgeries　is　obvious；　and　writers　as
wide　apart　as　Baur　and　Lightfoot　agree　that　the　whole　story　is　devoid
of　foundation。

The　dissertation　of　the　late　Bishop　of　Durham　（Epistle　to　the
Philippians）　is　particularly　worthy　of　study；　apart　from　this
question；　on　account　of　＇113＇　evidence　which　it　supplies　of　the
numerous　similarities　of　thought　between　Seneca　and　the　writer　of　the
Pauline　epistles。　When　it　is　remembered　that　the　writer　of　the　Acts
puts　a　quotation　from　Aratus；　or　Cleanthes；　into　the　mouth　of　the
apostle；　and　that　Tarsus　was　a　great　seat　of　philosophical　and
especially　stoical　learning　（Chrysippus　himself　was　a　native　of　the
adjacent　town　of　Soli）；　there　is　no　difficulty　in　understanding　the
origin　of　these　resemblances。　See；　on　this　subject；　Sir　Alexander
Grant's　dissertation　in　his　edition　of　The　Ethics　of　Aristotle　（where
there　is　an　interesting　reference　to　the　stoical　character　of　Bishop
Butler's　ethics）；　the　concluding　pages　of　Dr。　Weygoldt's　instructive
little　work　Die　Philosophie　der　Stoa；　and　Aubertin's　Seneque　et　Saint
Paul。

It　is　surprising　that　a　writer　of　Dr。　Lightfoot's　stamp　should　speak
of　Stoicism　as　a　philosophy　of　〃despair。〃　Surely；　rather；　it　was　a
philosophy　of　men　who；　having　cast　off　all　illusions；　and　the
childishness　of　despair　among　them；　were　minded　to　endure　in　patience
whatever　conditions　the　cosmic　process　might　create；　so　long　as　those
conditions　were　compatible　with　the　progress　towards　virtue；　which
alone；　for　them；　conferred　a　worthy　object　on　existence。　There　is　no
note　of　despair　in　the　stoical　declaration　that　the　perfected　〃wise
man〃　is　the　equal　of　Zeus　in　everything　but　the　duration　of　his
existence。　And；　in　my　judgment；　there　is　as　little　pride　about　it；
often　as　it　serves　for　the　text　of　discourses　on　stoical　arrogance。
Grant　the　stoical　postulate　that　there　is　no　good　except　virtue；　grant
that　＇114＇　the　perfected　wise　man　is　altogether　virtuous；　in
consequence　of　being　guided　in　all　things　by　the　reason；　which　is　an
effluence　of　Zeus；　and　there　seems　no　escape　from　the　stoical
conclusion。

Note　17　（p。　76）。

Our　〃Apathy〃　carries　such　a　different　set　of　connotations　from　its
Greek　original　that　I　have　ventured　on　using　the　latter　as　a　technical
term。

Note　18　（P。　77）。

Many　of　the　stoical　philosophers　recommended　their　disciples　to　take
an　active　share　in　public　affairs；　and　in　the　Roman　world；　for　several
centuries；　the　best　public　men　were　strongly　inclined　to　Stoicism。
Nevertheless；　the　logical　tendency　of　Stoicism　seems　to　me　to　be
fulfilled　only　in　such　men　as　Diogenes　and　Epictetus。

Note　19　（P。　80）。

〃Criticisms　on　the　Origin　of　Species；〃　1864。　Collected　Essays；　vol。　ii。
p。　　91。＇1894。＇

Note　20　（P。　81）。

Of　course；　strictly　speaking；　social　life；　and　the　ethical　process　in
virtue　of　which　it　advances　towards　perfection；　Are　part　and　parcel　of
the　general　process　of　evolution；　just　as　the　gregarious　habit　of　in
＇115＇　numerable　plants　and　animals；　which　has　been　of　immense
advantage　to　them；　is　so。　A　hive　of　bees　is　an　organic　polity；　a
society　in　which　the　part　played　by　each　member　is　determined　by
organic　necessities。　Queens；　workers；　and　drones　are；　so　to　speak；
castes；　divided　from　one　another　by　marked　physical　barriers。　Among
birds　and　mammals；　societies　are　formed；　of　which　the　bond　in　many
cases　seems　to　be　purely　psychological；　that　is　to　say；　it　appears　to
depend　upon　the　liking　of　the　individuals　for　one　another's　company。
The　tendency　of　individuals　to　over　self…assertion　is　kept　down　by
fighting。　　Even　in　these　rudimentary　forms　of　society；　love　and　fear
come　into　play；　and　enforce　a　greater　or　less　renunciation　of
self…will。　To　this　extent　the　general　cosmic　process　begins　to　be
checked　by　a　rudimentary　ethical　process；　which　is；　strictly　speaking；
part　of　the　former；　just　as　the　〃governor〃　in　a　steam…engine　is　part
of　the　mechanism　of　the　engine。

Note　21　（p。　82）。

See　〃Government：　Anarchy　or　Regimentation；〃　Collected　Essays；　vol。　i。
pp。　　413…418。　It　is　this　form　of　political　philosophy　to　which　I
conceive　the　epithet　of　〃reasoned　savagery〃　to　be　strictly
applicable。＇1894。＇

Note　22　（p。　83）。

〃L'homme　n'est　qu'un　roseau；　le　plus　faible　de　la　nature；　mais　c'est
un　roseau　pensant。　Il　ne　faut　＇116＇　pas　que　l'univers　entier　s'arme
pour　l'ecraser。　Une　vapour；　une　goutte　d'eau；　suffit　pour　le　tuer。
Mais　quand　l'univers　l'ecraserait；　l'homme　serait　encore　plus　noble
que　ce　qui　le　tue；　parce　qu'il　sait　qu'il　muert；　et　l'avantage　que
l'univers　a　sur　lui；　l'univers　n'en　sait　rien。〃Pensees　de　Pascal。

Note　23　（p。　85）。

The　use　of　the　word　〃Nature〃　here　may　be　criticised。　Yet　the
manifestation　of　the　natural　tendencies　of　men　is　so　profoundly
modified　by　training　that　it　is　hardly　too　strong。　Consider　the
suppression　of　the　sexual　instinct　between　near　relations。

Note　24　（p。　86）。

A　great　proportion　of　poetry　is　addressed　by　the　young　to　the　young；
only　the　great　masters　of　the　art　are　capable　of　divining；　or　think　it
worth　while　to　enter　into；　the　feelings　of　retrospective　age。　The　two
great　poets　whom　we　have　so　lately　lost；　Tennyson　and　Browning；　have
done　this；　each　in　his　own　inimitable　way；　the　one　in　the　Ulysses；
from　which　I　have　borrowed；　the　other　in　that　wonderful　fragment
〃Childe　Roland　to　the　dark　Tower　came。〃

＇147＇


　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　IV。

　　　　　　　CAPITALTHE　MOTHER　OF　LABOUR

　　　　AN　ECONOMICAL　PROBLEM　DISCUSSED　FROM　A
　　　　　　　　PHYSIOLOGICAL　POINT　OF　VIEW

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　＇1890。＇

THE　first　act　of　a　new…born　child　is　to　draw　a　deep　breath。　In　fact；　it
will　never　draw　a　deeper；　inasmuch　as　the　passages　and　chambers　of　the
lungs；　once　distended　with　air；　do　not　empty　themselves　again；　it　is
only　a　fraction　of　their　contents　which　passes　in　and　out　with　the
flow　and　the　ebb　of　the　respiratory　tide。　Mechanically；　this　act　of
drawing　breath；　or　inspiration；　is　of　the　same　nature　as　that　by　which
the　handles　of　a　bellows　are　separated；　in　order　to　fill　the　bellows
with　air；　and；　in　like　manner；　it　involves　that　expenditure　of　energy
which　we　call　exertion；　or　work；　or　labour。　It　is；　therefore；　no　mere
metaphor　to　say　that　man　is　destined　to　a　life　of　toil：　the　work　of
respiration　which　began　with　his　first　breath　ends　only　with　his　last；
nor　does　one　born　in　the　purple　get　off　with　a　lighter　task　than　the
child　who　first　sees　light　under　a　hedge。

＇148＇　How　is　it　that　the　new…born　infant　is　enabled　to　perform　this
first　instalment　of　the　sentence　of　life…long　labour　which　no　man　may
escape？　　Whatever　else　a　child　may　be；　in　respect　of　this　particular
question；　it　is　a　complicated　piece　of　mechanism；　built　up　out　of
materials　supplied　by　its　mother；　and　in　the　course　of　such
building…up；　provided　with　a　set　of　motorsthe　muscles。　Each　of　these
muscles　contains　a　stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　under
certain　conditions；　one　of　which　is　a　change　of　state　in　the　nerve
fibres　connected　with　it。　The　powder　in　a　loaded　gun　is　such　another
stock　of　subst