evolution and ethics and other essays-第17章

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fibres　connected　with　it。　The　powder　in　a　loaded　gun　is　such　another
stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　in　consequence　of　a
change　of　state　in　the　mechanism　of　the　lock；　which　intervenes　between
the　finger　of　the　man　who　pulls　the　trigger　and　the　cartridge。　If　that
change　is　brought　about；　the　potential　energy　of　the　powder　passes
suddenly　into　actual　energy；　and　does　the　work　of　propelling　the
bullet。　The　powder；　therefore；　may　be　appropriately　called　work…stuff；
not　only　because　it　is　stuff　which　is　easily　made　to　yield　work　in　the
physical　sense；　but　because　a　good　deal　of　work　in　the　economical　sense
has　contributed　to　its　production。　Labour　was　necessary　to　collect；
transport；　and　purify　the　raw　sulphur　and　saltpetre；　to　cut　wood　and
convert　it　into　powdered　charcoal；　to　mix　these　ingredients　in　the
right　proportions；　to　give　the　mixture　the　proper　grain；　and　so　on。
The　powder　＇149＇　once　formed　part　of　the　stock；　or　capital；　of　a
powder…maker：　and　it　is　not　only　certain　natural　bodies　which　are
collected　and　stored　in　the　gunpowder；　but　the　labour　bestowed　on　the
operations　mentioned　may　be　figuratively　said　to　be　incorporated　in
it。

In　principle；　the　work…stuff　stored　in　the　muscles　of　the　new…born
child　is　comparable　to　that　stored　in　the　gun…barrel。　The　infant　is
launched　into　altogether　new　surroundings；　and　these　operate　through
the　mechanism　of　the　nervous　machinery；　with　the　result　that　the
potential　energy　of　some　of　the　work…stuff　in　the　muscles　which　bring
about　inspiration　is　suddenly　converted　into　actual　energy；　and　this；
operating　through　the　mechanism　of　the　respiratory　apparatus；　gives
rise　to　an　act　of　inspiration。　As　the　bullet　is　propelled　by　the
〃going　off〃　of　the　powder；　as　it　might　be　said　that　the　ribs　are
raised　and　the　midriff　depressed　by　the　〃going　off〃　of　certain
portions　of　muscular　work…stuff。　This　work…stuff　is　part　of　a　stock　or
capital　of　that　commodity　stored　up　in　the　child's　organism　before
birth；　at　the　expense　of　the　mother；　and　the　mother　has　made　good　her
expenditure　by　drawing　upon　the　capital　of　food…stuffs　which　furnished
her　daily　maintenance。

Under　these　circumstances；　it　does　not　appear　to　me　to　be　open　to　doubt
that　the　primary　act　of　outward　labour　in　the　series　which　necessarily
accompany　＇150＇　the　life　of　man　is　dependent　upon　the　pre…existence　of
a　stock　of　material　which　is　not　only　of　use　to　him；　but　which　is
disposed　in　such　a　manner　as　to　be　utilisable　with　facility。　And　I
further　imagine　that　the　propriety　of　the　application　of　the　term
'capital'　to　this　stock　of　useful　substance　cannot　be　justly　called　in
question；　inasmuch　as　it　is　easy　to　prove　that　the　essential
constituents　of　the　work…stuff　accumulated　in　the　child's　muscles　have
merely　been　transferred　from　the　store　of　food…stuffs；　which　everybody
admits　to　be　capital；　by　means　of　the　maternal　organism　to　that　of　the
child；　in　which　they　are　again　deposited　to　await　use。　Every
subsequent　act　of　labour；　in　like　manner；　involves　an　equivalent
consumption　of　the　child's　store　of　work…stuffits　vital　capital；　and
one　of　the　main　objects　of　the　process　of　breathing　is　to　get　rid　of
some　of　the　effects　of　that　consumption。　It　follows；　then；　that；　even
if　no　other　than　the　respiratory　work　were　going　on　in　the　organism；
the　capital　of　work…stuff；　which　the　child　brought　with　it　into　the
world；　must　sooner　or　later　be　used　up；　and　the　movements　of　breathing
must　come　to　an　end；　just　as　the　see…saw　of　the　piston　of　a
steam…engine　stops　when　the　coal　in　the　fireplace　has　burnt　away。

Milk；　however；　is　a　stock　of　materials　which　essentially　consists　of
savings　from　the　food…stuffs　supplied　to　the　mother。　And　these　savings
are　＇151＇　in　such　a　physical　and　chemical　condition　that　the　organism
of　the　child　can　easily　convert　them　into　work…stuff。　That　is　to　say；
by　borrowing　directly　from　the　vital　capital　of　the　mother；　indirectly
from　the　store　in　the　natural　bodies　accessible　to　her；　it　can　make
good　the　loss　of　its　own。　The　operation　of　borrowing；　however；
involves　further　work；　that　is；　the　labour　of　sucking；　which　is　a
mechanical　operation　of　much　the　same　nature　as　breathing。　The　child
thus　pays　for　the　capital　it　borrows　in　labour；　but　as　the　value　in
work…stuff　of　the　milk　obtained　is　very　far　greater　than　the　value　of
that　labour；　estimated　by　the　consumption　of　work…stuff　it　involves；
the　operation　yields　a　large　profit　to　the　infant。　The　overplus　of
food…stuff　suffices　to　increase　the　child's　capital　of　work…stuff；　and
to　supply　not　only　the　materials　for　the　enlargement　of　the　〃buildings
and　machinery〃　which　is　expressed　by　the　child's　growth；　but　also　the
energy　required　to　put　all　these　materials　together；　and　to　carry　them
to　their　proper　places。　Thus；　throughout　the　years　of　infancy；　and　so
long　thereafter　as　the　youth　or　man　is　not　thrown　upon　his　own
resources；　he　lives　by　consuming　the　vital　capital　provided　by　others。
To　use　a　terminology　which　is　more　common　than　appropriate；　whatever
work　he　performs　（and　he　does　a　good　deal；　if　only　in　mere　locomotion）
is　unproductive。

＇152＇　Let　us　now　suppose　the　child　come　to　man's　estate　in　the
condition　of　a　wandering　savage；　dependent　for　his　food　upon　what　he
can　pick　up　or　catch；　after　the　fashion　of　the　Australian　aborigines。
It　is　plain　that　the　place　of　mother；　as　the　supplier　of　vital
capital；　is　now　taken　by　the　fruits；　seeds；　and　roots　of　plants　and　by
various　kinds　of　animals。　It　is　they　alone　which　contain　stocks　of
those　substances　which　can　be　converted　within　the　man's　organism　into
work…stuff；　and　of　the　other　matters；　except　air　and　water；　required
to　supply　the　constant　consumption　of　his　capital　and　to　keep　his
organic　machinery　going。　In　no　way　does　the　savage　contribute　to　the
production　of　these　substances。　Whatever　labour　he　bestows　upon　such
vegetable　and　animal　bodies；　on　the　contrary；　is　devoted　to　their
destruction；　and　it　is　a　mere　matter　of　accident　whether　a　little
labour　yields　him　a　great　dealas　in　the　case；　for　example；　of　a
stranded　whale；　or　whether　much　labour　yields　next　to　nothingas　in
times　of　long…continued　drought。　The　savage；　like　the　child；　borrows
the　capital　he　needs；　and；　at　any　rate；　intentionally；　does　nothing
towards　repayment；　it　would　plainly　be　an　improper　use　of　the　word
〃produce〃　to　say　that　his　labour　in　hunting　for　the　roots；　or　the
fruits；　or　the　eggs；　or　the　grubs　and　snakes；　which　he　finds　and　eats；
〃pro　duces〃　or　contributes　to　〃produce〃　them。　The　same　thing　is　true
of　more　advanced　tribes；　who　＇153＇　are　still　merely　hunters；　such　as
the　Esquimaux。　They　may　expend　more　labour　and　skill；　but　it　is　spent
in　destruction。

When　we　pass　from　these　to　men　who　lead　a　purely　pastoral　life；　like
the　South　American　Gauchos；　or　some　Asiatic　nomads；　there　is　an
important　change。　Let　us　suppose　the　owner　of　a　flock　of　sheep　to　live
on　the　milk；　cheese；　and　flesh　which　they　yield。　It　is　obvious　that
the　flock　stands　to　him　in　the　economic　relation　of　the　mother　to　the
child；　inasmuch　as　it　supplies　him　with　food…stuffs　competent　to　make
good　the　daily　and　hourly　losses　of　his　capital　of　workstuff。　If　we
imagine　our　sheep…owner　to　have　access　to　extensive　pastures　and　to　be
troubled　neither　by　predacious　animals　nor　by　rival　shepherds；　the
performance　of　his　pastoral　functions　will　hardly　involve　the
expenditure　of　any　more　labour　than　is　needful　to　provide　him　with　the
exercise　required　to　maintain　health。　And　this　is　true；　even　if　we
take　into　account　the　trouble　originally　devoted　to　the　domestication
of　the　sheep。　It　surely　would　be　a　most　singular　pretension　for　the
shepherd　to　talk　of　the　flock　as　the　〃produce〃　of　his　labour　in　any
but　a　very　limited　sense。　In　truth；　his　labour　would　have　been　a　mere
accessory　of　production　of　very　little　consequence。　Under　the
circumstances　supposed；　a　ram　and　some　ewes；　left　to　themselves　for　a
few　years；　would　probably　generate　as　large　a　flock；　＇154＇　and　the
superadded　labour　of　the　shepherd　would　have　little　more　effect　upon
their　production　than　upon　that　of　the　blackberries　on　the　bushes
about　the　pastures。　For　the　most　part　the　increment　would　be
thoroughly　unearned；　and；　if　it　is　a　rule　of　absolute　political　ethics
that　owners　have　no　claim　upon　〃betterment〃　brought　about
independently　of　their　own　labour；　then　the　shepherd　would　have　no
claim　to　at　least　nine…tenths　of　the　increase　of　the　flock。

But　if　the　shepherd　has　no　real　claim　to　the　title　of　〃producer；〃　who
has？　　Are　the　rams　and　ewes　the　true　〃producers〃？　Certainly　their
title　is　better　if；　borrowing　from　the　old　terminology　of　chemistry；
they　only　claim　to　be　regarded　as　the　〃proximate　principles〃　of
production。　And　yet；　if　strict　justice　is　to　be　dispensed；　even　they
are　to　be　regarded　rather　as　collectors　and　distributors　than　as
〃producers。〃　For　all　that　they　really　do　is　to　collect；　slightly
modify；　and　render　easily　accessible；　the　vital　capital　which　already
exists　in　the　green　herbs　on　which　they　feed；　but　in　such　a　form　as　to
be　practically　out　of　the　reach　of　man。

Thus；　from　an　economic　point　of　view；　the　sheep　are　more　comparable　to
confectioners　than　to　producers。　The　usefulness　of　biscuit　lies　in　the
raw　flour　of　which　it　is　made；　but　raw　flour　does　not　answer　as　an
article　of　human　diet；　and　biscuit　does。　So　the　usefulness　of　mutton
lies　mainly　in　certain　chemical　compounds　which　it　＇155＇　contains：　the
sheep　gets　them　out　of　grass；　we　cannot　live　on　grass；　but　we　can　on
mutton。

Now；　herbaceous　and　all　other　green　plants　stand　alone　among
terrestrial　natural　bodies；　in　so　far　as；　under　the　influence　of
light；　they　possess　the　power　to　build　up；　out　of　the　carbonic　acid
gas　in　the　atmosphere；　water　and　certain　nitrogenous　and　mineral
salts；　those　substances　which　in　the　animal　organism　are　utilised　as
work…stuff。　They　are　the　chief　and；　for　practical　purposes；　the　sole
producers　of　that　vital　capital　which　we　have　seen　to　be　the　necessary
antecedent　of　every　act　of　labour。　Every　green　plant　is　a　laboratory
in　which；　so　long　as　the　sun　shines　upon　it；　materials　furnished　by
the　mineral　world；　gases；　water；　saline　compounds；　are　worked　up　into
those　foodstuffs　without　which　animal　life　cannot　be　carried　on。　And
since；　up　to　the　present　time；　synthetic　chemistry　has　not　advanced　so
far　as　to　achieve　this　feat；　the　green　plant　may　be　said　to　be　the
only　living　worker　whose　labour　directly　results　in　the　production　of
that　vital　capital　which　is　the　necessary　antecedent　of　human　labour。*
Nor　is　this　statement　a　paradox　involving　perpetual　motion；　because
the　energy　by　which　the　plant　does　its　work　is　supplied　by　the
sunthe　primordial　capitalist　so　far　as　we　are　concerned。　But　＇156＇
it　cannot　be　too　strongly　impressed　upon　the　mind　that　sunshine；　air；
water；　the　best　soil　that　is　to　be　found　on　the　surface　of　the　earth；
might　co…exist；　yet　without　plants；　there　is　no　known　agency　competent
to　generate　the　so…called　〃protein　compounds；〃　by　which　alone　animal
life　can　be　permanently　supported。　And　not　only　are　plants　thus
essential；　but；　in　respect　of　particular　kinds　of　animals；　they　must
be　plants　of　a　particular　nature。　If　there　were　no