evolution and ethics and other essays-第15章

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exclusively　to　this　joyful　consummation；　and　personified　the　negation
of　all　conceivable　existence　and　of　all　pain　into　a　positive　bliss。
This　was　all　the　more　easy；　as　Gautama　refused　to　give　any　dogmatic
definition　of　Nirvana。　There　is　something　analogous　in　the　way　in
which　people　commonly　talk　of　the　〃happy　release〃　of　a　man　who　has
been　long　suffering　from　mortal　disease。　According　to　their　own　views；
it　must　always　be　extremely　doubtful　whether　the　man　will　be　any
happier　after　the　〃release〃　＇103＇　than　before。　But　they　do　not　choose
to　look　at　the　matter　in　this　light。

The　popular　notion　that；　with　practical；　if　not　metaphysical；
annihilation　in　view；　Buddhism　must　needs　be　a　sad　and　gloomy　faith
seems　to　be　inconsistent　with　fact；　on　the　contrary；　the　prospect　of
Nirvana　fills　the　true　believer；　not　merely　with　cheerfulness；　but
with　an　ecstatic　desire　to　reach　it。

Note　10　（P。　68。）

The　influence　of　the　picture　of　the　personal　qualities　of　Gautama；
afforded　by　the　legendary　anecdotes　which　rapidly　grew　into　a
biography　of　the　Buddha；　and　by　the　birth　stories；　which　coalesced
with　the　current　folk…lore；　and　were　intelligible　to　all　the　world；
doubtless　played　a　great　part。　Further；　although　Gautama　appears　not
to　have　meddled　with　the　caste　system；　he　refused　to　recognize　any
distinction；　save　that　of　perfection　in　the　way　of　salvation；　among
his　followers；　and　by　such　teaching；　no　less　than　by　the　inculcation
of　love　and　benevolence　to　all　sentient　beings；　he　practically
levelled　every　social；　political；　and　racial　barrier。　A　third
important　condition　was　the　organization　of　the　Buddhists　into
monastic　communities　for　the　stricter　professors；　while　the　laity　were
permitted　a　wide　indulgence　in　practice　and　were　allowed　to　hope　for
accommodation　in　some　of　the　temporary　abodes　of　bliss。　With　a　few
hundred　thousand　years　of　immediate　paradise　in　sight；　the　average　man
could　be　content　to　shut　his　eyes　to　what　might　follow。

＇104＇

Note　11　（P。　69）。

In　ancient　times　it　was　the　fashion；　even　among　the　Greeks　themselves；
to　derive　all　Greek　wisdom　from　Eastern　sources；　not　long　ago　it　was
as　generally　denied　that　Greek　philosophy　had　any　connection；　with
Oriental　speculation；　it　seems　probable；　however；　that　the　truth　lies
between　these　extremes。

The　Ionian　intellectual　movement　does　not　stand　alone。　It　is　only　one
of　several　sporadic　indications　of　the　working　of　some　powerful　mental
ferment　over　the　whole　of　the　area　comprised　between　the　Aegean　and
Northern　Hindostan　during　the　eighth；　seventh；　and　sixth　centuries
before　our　era。　In　these　three　hundred　years；　prophetism　attained　its
apogee　among　the　Semites　of　Palestine；　Zoroasterism　grew　and　became
the　creed　of　a　conquering　race；　the　Iranic　Aryans；　Buddhism　rose　and
spread　with　marvellous　rapidity　among　the　Aryans　of　Hindostan；　while
scientific　naturalism　took　its　rise　among　the　Aryans　of　Ionia。　It
would　be　difficult　to　find　another　three　centuries　which　have　given
birth　to　four　events　of　equal　importance。　All　the　principal　existing
religions　of　mankind　have　grown　out　of　the　first　three：　while　the
fourth　is　the　little　spring；　now　swollen　into　the　great　stream　of
positive　science。　So　far　as　physical　possibilities　go；　the　prophet
Jeremiah　and　the　oldest　Ionian　philosopher　might　have　met　and
conversed。　If　they　had　done　so；　they　would　probably　have　disagreed　a
good　deal；　and　it　is　interesting　to　reflect　that　their　discussions
might　have　＇105＇　embraced　Questions　which；　at　the　present　day；　are
still　hotly　controverted。

The　old　Ionian　philosophy；　then；　seems　to　be　only　one　of　many　results
of　a　stirring　of　the　moral　and　intellectual　life　of　the　Aryan　and　the
Semitic　populations　of　Western　Asia。　The　conditions　of　this　general
awakening　were　doubtless　manifold；　but　there　is　one　which　modern
research　has　brought　into　great　prominence。　This　is　the　existence　of
extremely　ancient　and　highly　advanced　societies　in　the　valleys　of　the
Euphrates　and　of　the　Nile。

It　is　now　known　that；　more　than　a　thousandperhaps　more　than　two
thousandyears　before　the　sixth　century　B。C。；　civilization　had
attained　a　relatively　high　pitch　among　the　Babylonians　and　the
Egyptians。　Not　only　had　painting；　sculpture；　architecture；　and　the
industrial　arts　reached　a　remarkable　development；　but　in　Chaldaea；　at
any　rate；　a　vast　amount　of　knowledge　had　been　accumulated　and
methodized；　in　the　departments　of　grammar；　mathematics；　astronomy；　and
natural　history。　Where　such　traces　of　the　scientific　spirit　are
visible；　naturalistic　speculation　is　rarely　far　off；　though；　so　far　as
I　know；　no　remains　of　an　Accacian；　or　Egyptian；　philosophy；　properly
so　called；　have　yet　been　recovered。

Geographically；　Chaldaea　occupied　a　central　position　among　the　oldest
seats　of　civilization。　Commerce；　largely　aided　by　the　intervention　of
those　colossal　pedlars；　the　Phoenicians；　had　brought　Chaldaea　into
connection　with　all　of　them；　for　a　thousand　years　before　the　epoch　at
present　under　consideration。　And　in　the　ninth；　eighth　and　seventh
＇106＇　centuries；　the　Assyrian；　the　depositary　of　Chaldaean
civilization；　as　the　Macedonian　and　the　Roman；　at　a　later　date；　were
the　depositories　of　Greek　culture；　had　added　irresistible　force　to　the
other　agencies　for　the　wide　distribution　of　Chaldaean　literature；　art；
and　science。

I　confess　that　I　find　it　difficult　to　imagine　that　the　Greek
immigrantwho　stood　in　somewhat　the　same　relation　to　the　Babylonians
and　the　Egyptians　as　the　later　Germanic　barbarians　to　the　Romans　of
the　Empireshould　not　have　been　immensely　influenced　by　the　new　life
with　which　they　became　acquainted。　　But　there　is　abundant　direct
evidence　of　the　magnitude　of　this　influence　in　certain　spheres。　I
suppose　it　is　not　doubted　that　the　Greek　went　to　school　with　the
Oriental　for　his　primary　instruction　in　reading；　writing；　and
arithmetic；　and　that　Semitic　theology　supplied　him　with　some　of　his
mythological　lore。　Nor　does　there　now　seem　to　be　any　question　about
the　large　indebtedness　of　Greek　art　to　that　of　Chaldaea　and　that　of
Egypt。

But　the　manner　of　that　indebtedness　is　very　instructive。　The　obligation
is　clear；　but　its　limits　are　no　less　definite。　Nothing　better
exemplifies　the　indomitable　originality　of　the　Greeks　than　the
relations　of　their　art　to　that　of　the　Orientals。　Far　from　being
subdued　into　mere　imitators　by　the　technical　excellence　of　their
teachers；　they　lost　no　time　in　bettering　the　instruction　they
received；　using　their　models　as　mere　stepping　stones　on　the　way　to
those　unsurpassed　and　unsurpassable　achievements　which　are　all　their
own。　The　shibboleth　of　Art　is　＇107＇　the　human　figure。　The　ancient
Chaldaeans　and　Egyptians；　like　the　modern　Japanese；　did　wonders　in　the
representation　of　birds　and　quadrupeds；　they　even　attained　to
something　more　than　respectability　in　human　portraiture。　But　their
utmost　efforts　never　brought　them　within　range　of　the　best　Greek
embodiments　of　the　grace　of　womanhood；　or　of　the　severer　beauty　of
manhood。

It　is　worth　while　to　consider　the　probable　effect　upon　the　acute　and
critical　Greek　mind　of　the　conflict　of　ideas；　social；　political；　and
theological；　which　arose　out　of　the　conditions　of　life　in　the　Asiatic
colonies。　The　Ionian　polities　had　passed　through　the　whole　gamut　of
social　and　political　changes；　from　patriarchal　and　occasionally
oppressive　kingship　to　rowdy　and　still　more　burdensome　mobshipno
doubt　with　infinitely　eloquent　and　copious　argumentation；　on　both
sides；　at　every　stage　of　their　progress　towards　that　arbitrament　of
force　which　settles　most　political　questions。　The　marvellous
speculative　faculty；　latent　in　the　Ionian；　had　come　in　contact　with
Mesopotamian；　Egyptian；　Phoenician　theologies　and　cosmogonies；　with
the　illuminati　of　Orphism　and　the　fanatics　and　dreamers　of　the
Mysteries；　possibly　with　Buddhism　and　Zoroasterism；　possibly　even　with
Judaism。　And　it　has　been　observed　that　the　mutual　contradictions　of
antagonistic　supernaturalisms　are　apt　to　play　a　large　part　among　the
generative　agencies　of　naturalism。

Thus；　various　external　influences　may　have　contributed　to　the　rise　of
philosophy　among　the　Ionian　Greeks　of　the　sixth　century。　But　the
assimilative　＇108＇　capacity　of　the　Greek　mindits　power　of
Hellenizing　whatever　it　touchedhas　here　worked　so　effectually；　that；
so　far　as　I　can　learn；　no　indubitable　traces　of　such　extraneous
contributions　are　now　allowed　to　exist　by　the　most　authoritative
historians　of　Philosophy。　　Nevertheless；　I　think　it　must　be　admitted
that　the　coincidences　between　the　Heracleito…stoical　doctrines　and
those　of　the　older　Hindu　philosophy　are　extremely　remarkable。　In　both；
the　cosmos　pursues　an　eternal　succession　of　cyclical　changes。　The
great　year；　answering　to　the　Kalpa；　covers　an　entire　cycle　from　the
origin　of　the　universe　as　a　fluid　to　its　dissolution　in　fire〃Humor
initium；　ignis　exitus　mundi；〃　as　Seneca　has　it。　In　both　systems；　there
is　immanent　in　the　cosmos　a　source　of　energy；　Brahma；　or　the　Logos；
which　works　according　to　fixed　laws。　The　individual　soul　is　an　efflux
of　this　world…spirit；　and　returns　to　it。　Perfection　is　attainable　only
by　individual　effort；　through　ascetic　discipline；　and　is　rather　a
state　of　painlessness　than　of　happiness；　if　indeed　it　can　be　said　to
be　a　state　of　anything；　save　the　negation　of　perturbing　emotion。　The
hatchment　motto　〃In　Coelo　Quies〃　would　serve　both　Hindu　and　Stoic；　and
absolute　quiet　is　not　easily　distinguishable　from　annihilation。

Zoroasterism；　which；　geographically；　occupies　a　position　intermediate
between　Hellenism　and　Hinduism；　agrees　with　the　latter　in　recognizing
the　essential　evil　of　the　cosmos；　but　differs　from　both　in　its
intensely　anthropomorphic　personification　of　the　two　antagonistic
principles；　to　the　one　of　which　it　ascribes　all　the　good；　and；　to　the
other；　all　the　evil。

＇109＇　In　fact；　it　assumes　the　existence　of　two　worlds；　one　good　and　one
bad；　the　latter　created　by　the　evil　power　for　the　purpose　of　damaging
the　former。　　The　existing　cosmos　is　a　mere　mixture　of　the　two；　and　the
〃last　judgment〃　is　a　root…and…branch　extirpation　of　the　work　of
Ahriman。

Note　12　（p。　69）。

There　is　no　snare　in　which　the　feet　of　a　modern　student　of　ancient　lore
are　more　easily　entangled；　than　that　which　is　spread　by　the　similarity
of　the　language　of　antiquity　to　modern　modes　of　expression。　I　do　not
presume　to　interpret　the　obscurest　of　Greek　philosophers；　all　I　wish
is　to　point　out；　that　his　words；　in　the　sense　accepted　by　competent
interpreters；　fit　modern　ideas　singularly　well。

So　far　as　the　general　theory　of　evolution　goes　there　is　no　difficulty。
The　aphorism　about　the　river；　the　figure　of　the　child　playing　on　the
shore；　the　kingship　and　fatherhood　of　strife；　seem　decisive。　The
＇Greek　phrase　osod　ano　kato　mie＇　expresses；　with　singular　aptness；　the
cyclical　aspect　of　the　one　process　of　organic　evolution　in　individual
plants　and　animals：　yet　it　may　be　a　question　whether　the　Heracleitean
strife　included　any　distinct　conception　of　the　struggle　for　existence。
Again；　it　is　tempting　to　compare　the　part　played　by　the　Heracleitean
〃fire〃　with　that　ascribed　by　the　moderns　to　heat；　or　rather　to　that
cause　of　motion　of　which　heat　is　one　expression