proposed roads to freedom(通往自由之路)-第3章
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evils apparent in this form of constitution at present would disappear with
the disappearance of capitalism。 Anarchists and Syndicalists； on the other
hand； object to the whole parliamentary machinery； and aim at a different
method of regulating the political affairs of the community。 But all alike
are democratic in the sense that they aim at abolishing every kind of
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privilege and every kind of artificial inequality： all alike are champions of
the wage… earner in existing society。 All three also have much in common
in their economic doctrine。 All three regard capital and the wages system
as a means of exploiting the laborer in the interests of the possessing
classes； and hold that communal ownership； in one form or another； is the
only means of bringing freedom to the producers。 But within the
framework of this common doctrine there are many divergences； and even
among those who are strictly to be called Socialists； there is a very
considerable diversity of schools。
Socialism as a power in Europe may be said to begin with Marx。 It is
true that before his time there were Socialist theories； both in England and
in France。 It is also true that in France； during the revolution of 1848；
Socialism for a brief period acquired considerable influence in the State。
But the Socialists who preceded Marx tended to indulge in Utopian
dreams and failed to found any strong or stable political party。 To Marx； in
collaboration with Engels； are due both the formulation of a coherent body
of Socialist doctrine； sufficiently true or plausible to dominate the minds
of vast numbers of men； and the formation of the International Socialist
movement； which has continued to grow in all European countries
throughout the last fifty years。
In order to understand Marx's doctrine； it is necessary to know
something of the influences which formed his outlook。 He was born in
1818 at Treves in the Rhine Provinces； his father being a legal official； a
Jew who had nominally accepted Christianity。 Marx studied jurisprudence；
philosophy； political economy and history at various German universities。
In philosophy he imbibed the doctrines of Hegel； who was then at the
height of his fame； and something of these doctrines dominated his
thought throughout his life。 Like Hegel； he saw in history the development
of an Idea。 He conceived the changes in the world as forming a logical
development； in which one phase passes by revolution into another； which
is its antithesisa conception which gave to his views a certain hard
abstractness； and a belief in revolution rather than evolution。 But of
Hegel's more definite doctrines Marx retained nothing after his youth。 He
was recognized as a brilliant student； and might have had a prosperous
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career as a professor or an official； but his interest in politics and his
Radical views led him into more arduous paths。 Already in 1842 he
became editor of a newspaper； which was suppressed by the Prussian
Government early in the following year on account of its advanced
opinions。 This led Marx to go to Paris； where he became known as a
Socialist and acquired a knowledge of his French predecessors。＇1＇ Here in
the year 1844 began his lifelong friendship with Engels； who had been
hitherto in business in Manchester； where he had become acquainted with
English Socialism and had in the main adopted its doctrines。＇2＇ In 1845
Marx was expelled from Paris and went with Engels to live in Brussels。
There he formed a German Working Men's Association and edited a paper
which was their organ。 Through his activities in Brussels he became
known to the German Communist League in Paris； who； at the end of
1847； invited him and Engels to draw up for them a manifesto； which
appeared in January； 1848。 This is the famous ‘‘Communist Manifesto；'' in
which for the first time Marx's system is set forth。 It appeared at a
fortunate moment。 In the following month； February； the revolution broke
out in Paris； and in March it spread to Germany。 Fear of the revolution led
the Brussels Government to expel Marx from Belgium； but the German
revolution made it possible for him to return to his own country。 In
Germany he again edited a paper； which again led him into a conflict with
the authorities； increasing in severity as the reaction gathered force。 In
June； 1849； his paper was suppressed； and he was expelled from Prussia。
He returned to Paris； but was expelled from there also。 This led him to
settle in Englandat that time an asylum for friends of freedomand in
England； with only brief intervals for purposes of agitation； he continued
to live until his death in 1883。
＇1＇ Chief among these were Fourier and Saint…Simon； who
constructed somewhat fantastic Socialistic ideal commonwealths。
Proudhon； with whom Marx had some not wholly friendly relations； is to
be regarded as a forerunner of the Anarchists rather than of orthodox
Socialism。
＇2＇ Marx mentions the English Socialists with praise in ‘‘The Poverty
of Philosophy'' （1847）。 They； like him； tend to base their arguments upon a
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Ricardian theory of value； but they have not his scope or erudition or
scientific breadth。 Among them may be mentioned Thomas Hodgskin
（1787…1869）； originally an officer in the Navy； but dismissed for a
pamphlet critical of the methods of naval discipline； author of ‘‘Labour
Defended Against the Claims of Capital'' （1825） and other works； William
Thompson （1785…1833）； author of ‘‘Inquiry into the Principles of
Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness'' （1824）； and
‘‘Labour Rewarded'' （1825）； and Piercy Ravenstone； from whom
Hodgskin's ideas are largely derived。 Perhaps more important than any of
these was Robert Owen。
The bulk of his time was occupied in the composition of his great
book； ‘‘Capital。''＇3＇ His other important work during his later years was
the formation and spread of the International Working Men's Association。
From 1849 onward the greater part of his time was spent in the British
Museum； accumulating； with German patience； the materials for his
terrific indictment of capitalist society； but he retained his hold on the
International Socialist movement。 In several countries he had sons…in…law
as lieutenants； like Napoleon's brothers； and in the various internal
contests that arose his will generally prevailed。
＇3＇ The first and most important volume appeared in 1867； the other
two volumes were published posthumously （1885 and 1894）。
The most essential of Marx's doctrines may be reduced to three： first；
what is called the material… istic interpretation of history； second； the law
of the concentration of capital； and； third； the class…war。
1。 The Materialistic Interpretation of History。 Marx holds that in the
main all the phenomena of human society have their origin in material
conditions； and these he takes to be embodied in economic systems。
Political constitutions； laws； religions； philosophiesall these he regards
as； in their broad outlines； expressions of the economic regime in the
society that gives rise to them。 It would be unfair to represent him as
maintaining that the conscious economic motive is the only one of
importance； it is rather that economics molds character and opinion； and is
thus the prime source of much that appears in consciousness to have no
connection with them。 He applies his doctrine in particular to two
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revolutions； one in the past； the other in the future。 The revolution in the
past is that of the bourgeoisie against feudalism； which finds its expression；
according to him； particularly in the French Revolution。 The one in the
future is the revolution of the wage… earners； or proletariat； against the
bourgeoisie； which is to establish the Socialist Commonwealth。 The whole
movement of history is viewed by him as necessary； as the effect of
material causes operating upon human beings。 He does not so much
advocate the Socialist revolution as predict it。 He holds； it is true； that it
will be beneficent； but he is much more concerned to prove that it must
inevitably come。 The same sense of necessity is visible in his exposition of
the evils of the capitalist system。 He does not blame capitalists for the
cruelties of which he shows them to have been guilty； he merely points out
that they are under an inherent necessity to behave cruelly so long as
private ownership of land and capital continues。 But their tyranny will not
last forever； for it generates the forces that must in the end overthrow it。
2。 The Law of the Concentration of Capital。 Marx pointed out that
capitalist undertakings tend to grow larger and larger。 He foresaw the
substitution of trusts for free competition； and predicted that the number of
capitalist enterprises must diminish as the magnitude of single enterprises
inc
