lecture iii-第5章

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which　is　clearly　seen；　both　by　society　and　by　Government。　The
absenteeism　of　the　higher　classes　and　their　dislike　of　that
country　life　which　is　so　familiar　in　England；　certainly　finds　its
chief　root　in　what　I　may　call　the　〃privilegium　odiosum〃　which　is
attached　to　the　status。　On　the　other　hand；　the　ordinary　peasant；
left　without　that　natural　control　and　guidance　which　the
enlightened　classes　are　called　upon　to　exercise　towards　the　more
ignorant；　is　naturally　led　to　look　for　protection　and　help　to
those　of　his　own　rank　who　have　succeeded　in　securing　for
themselves　a　certain　amount　of　material　wealth。　This　class　of
rich　peasants；　known　under　the　name　of　〃koulaks；〃　which　means　a
man　knowing　how　to　keep　money　in　his　own　hands；　is　as　a　rule　no
better　educated　and　far　more　selfish　and　immoral　than　the　rest　of
the　country　people。　The　disintegrating　influence；　which　such　a
class　exercises；　has　been　rightly　recognised　in　the　nickname　with
which　the　peasantry　have　dubbed　its　members；　I　mean　that　of
〃miroied。〃　or　〃eaters　of　the　mir〃　it　is　to　such　speculators　and
monopolists　that　the　people　are　abandoned；　it　may　be　in　the
secret　hope　of　rendering　impossible　any　good　understanding
between　them　and　the　higher　classes　of　the　nation。　For　no　doubt；
such　an　understanding　might　become　a　serious　obstacle　in　the　way
of　the　all…powerful　bureaucracy；　which　rules　over　the　masses　with
that　insolence　and　harshness　which　are　usually　only　met　with　in
the　relations　of　conquerors　to　a　conquered　nation。　Instead　of
giving　the　higher　classes　their　share　in　the　affairs　of　the
village；　the　Government　has　lately　increased　the　number　of
administrative　oppressors；　by　instituting　a　new　office；　that　of
〃Commander　of　the　district。〃　This　office　is　to　be　exclusively
filled　by　members　of　the　hereditary　nobility。　With　no　other
control　over　them；　than　that　of　the　Governor　of　the　province；
these　newly…created　officers　are　called　upon　to　exercise　a
boundless　authority；　both　executive　and　judicial；　over　the
villages　in　their　district。　There　is　no　judicial　appeal　against
their　doings；　for　they　are　at　once　police　officers　making　their
own　by…laws；　and　magistrates　authorised　to　decide　questions　of
the　infringement　of　these　same　by…laws；　they　are　even　the
executioners　of　their　own　sentences；　for　the　right　of　flogging　on
the　spot；　where　the　misdemeanour　has　been　committed；　is　openly
recognised　as　belonging　to　them。
　　　　It　is　not　difficult　to　foresee　the　effect　which　the
introduction　of　these　new　officers　will　have　on　the　life　of　the
people。　Having　been　hitherto　taught　to　look　on　the　neighbouring
squire　as　a　stranger；　they　will　now　come　to　consider　him　as　their
natural　enemy。
　　　　But　let　us　go　back　to　the　study　of　the　administrative
organisation　of　the　Russian　mir。
　　　　Every　village　is　authorised　to　have　its　popular　assembly。
This　folkmote　is　the　regular　heir　of　the　〃vechas〃　and　〃koupas〃
still　preserved；　as　we　have　seen；　in　the　sixteenth　and
seventeenth　centuries；　among　the　South…Western　communes　of
Russia；　and；　what　is　not　less　curious；　also　by　the　manorial
system　during　the　same　centuries。　When　I　say　that　all　the　adult
members　of　the　village　are　called　upon　to　vote　at　these　popular
assemblies；　I　mean　that　this　is　the　case　in　the　majority　of
Russian　villages；　in　which　the　inhabitants　are　likewise　partners
in　the　common　lands　of　the　village。　It　is　not　the　case　in　the
yearly　increasing　number　of　villages；　in　which　the　new…comers　are
only　permitted　to　reside　in　the　commune；　but　are　prevented　from
sharing　in　the　benefit　which　the　commune　derives　from　its
property　in　land。　In　Germany　and　Switzerland；　where　centuries　ago
new…comers；　known　under　the　name　of　〃Beisaszen〃　or
〃Hintersaszen；〃　〃domicilies；〃　〃manants；〃　etc。；　were　allowed　to
settle　side　by　side　with　the　proprietors　of　the　common　land　（the
gemeingut　or　allmend）；　two　kinds　of　popular　assemblies　are　known。
The　one　is　composed　of　all　the　adult　inhabitants　without
distinction；　the　other　of　those　who　have　a　share　in　the　common
land。　The　first　assembly　makes　by…laws；　chooses　officers；　and
passes　measures　which　concern　the　common　good。　The　second
administers　the　lands　of　the　village；　appoints　those　entrusted
with　the　care　of　them；　and　distributes　to　the　several　partners
their　shares　in　the　commons。　The　laws　of　some　Swiss　cantons；
therefore；　establish　a　difference　between　the　〃politische
Gemeinde；〃　or　commune；　composed　of　all　the　male　inhabitants；　and
the　〃burgerliche　Gemeinde；〃　to　which　all　the　sharers　in　the
common　land；　male　and　female　alike；　belong。　Now　this　difference
is　unknown　in　Russia；　where　political　rights　are　exclusively
exercised　by　those　inhabitants　who　are　at　the　same　time　sharers
in　the　common　land。
　　　　The　officer　to　whom　the　assembly　entrusts　the　administration
of　the　village　is　called　the　village　elder。　We　find　the　same
officer　in　the　old　Russian　communes；　both　in　the　so…called　〃black
hundreds〃　in　other　words；　in　the　villages　inhabited　by
free…commoners　　and　also　on　the　lands　of　manorial　lords。
Monastic　charters；　among　other　documents；　very　frequently　mention
the　election　of　these　officers；　who　are　sometimes　called；
especially　in　the　South…Western　communes；　〃bourgmistr〃　　a　name
evidently　derived　from　the　German　burgermeister；　and　showing；　to
a　certain　extent；　the　influence　exercised　by　German　municipal　law
on　the　local　organisation　of　Lithuania　and　Little　Russia。
　　　　It　is　the　village　elder；　the　starosta；　who　represents　the
commune　in　its　relations　with　the　district　and　provincial
authorities。　It　is　he　who　collects　the　taxes；　exercises　some
supervision　over　the　way　in　which　the　commune　keeps　in　repair　the
roads　and　pubic　buildings；　sees　that　the　law　concerning
obligatory　fire　insurance　is　obeyed；　and　carries　into　effect　the
various　administrative　enactments　which　the　police　authorities
and　the　local　assemblies　of　the　zemstvo　are　very　liberal　in
creating。　But　the　most　important　functions　of　the　commune；　that
of　apportioning　personal　taxation　and　making　periodical
assessments　of　common　land；　are　performed　by　the　popular　assembly
or　mir。　Two…thirds　of　the　whole　number　of　voters　are　empowered　to
decide　whether　the　proper　time　has　come　or　not　for　a　new　general
allotment。　The　same　majority　is　also　required　whenever　the
division　of　the　common　land　into　private　property　has　to　be
decided　on。
　　　　Neither　the　assembly　nor　the　village　elder　has　any　judicial
authority；　but　the　village　elder　exercises；　to　a　certain　extent；
the　functions　of　a　public　notary；　for　he　gives　legal　validity　to
private　documents　and　deeds　by　affixing　to　them　the　village　seal。
　　　　A　regular　tribunal；　a　kind　of　court　leet；　is　formed　by　the
elective　judges　of　the　volost。　This　institution　is　an　innovation
introduced　by　the　emancipation　law；　at　least　so　far　as　it
assigns；　not　to　the　village；　but　to　the　larger　territorial
district；　the　volost；　the　sole　right　of　giving　judicial　decisions
in　civil　suits　and　in　misdemeanours　among　persons　belonging　to
the　peasant　class。　The　peculiar　feature　of　this　tribunal　is；　that
it　is　not　bound　to　follow　the　prescriptions　of　law；　but　those　of
custom。
　　　　Russia；　so　far　as　I　know；　is　the　only　European　country；　in
which　a　sort　of　〃personalitas　legum〃　is　still　acknowledged；　the
peasants　submitting　to　one　complex　code　of　legal　rules；　and　the
higher　classes　to　another。　What　is　no　less　characteristic　is　the
fact　that　the　customary　law　of　the　Russian　peasant　is　alone　the
genuine　Russian　law　　the　law　that　is　found　in　our　ancient　codes
（such　as　the　Pravda　of　Jaroslav；　in　the　judicial　charters　of
Novgorod　and　Pscov；　in　the　statute　of　Lithuania；　and　in　the　codes
of　Ivan　the　Third　and　of　Ivan　the　Terrible）；　whist　the　volumes　X
and　XV　（so…called）　of　the　general　collection　of　laws　（so　the
civil　and　criminal　codes　are　designated　in　Russia）　are　a　compound
partly　of　Russian；　partly　of　French；　partly　of　canon；　Byzantine
or　even　so…called　natural　law。
　　　　The　only　way　to　get　rid　of　this　dualism　in　matters　of
legislation　would　be　to　codify　the　customary　law　of　Russia；
introducing　into　it　the　changes　required　by　the　social
development　that　has　been　already　achieved　by　the　higher　classes。
But　such　does　not　seem　to　be　the　opinion　of　the　bureaucrats；　to
whom　has　been　intrusted　the　difficult　task　of　preparing　the　text
of　a　new　civil　and　criminal　code。　The　books　and　pamphlets
published　by　these　modern　Solons　express　an　opposite　view　and
would　seem　to　justify　the　supposition　that　the　double　law　will　be
scrupulously　preserved；　probably　with　the　object　of　perpetuating
the　misunderstanding　which　already　exists　between　the　lower　and
higher　classes　of　Russian　society。
　　　　The　volost　has　no　assembly　of　its　own；　but　it　has　its　chief
in　the　person　of　an　elected　elder　〃starschina；〃　to　whom　the
village　elders　are　subject　in　all　matters　concerning　the
collection　of　taxes　and　the　carrying　into　effect　of　laws　and
by…laws。
　　　　The　little　I　have　here　said　about　the　organisation　of　the
village　community　will　answer　the　end　I　have　in　view　of　placing
clearly　before　you　the　economic　arrangements　made　by　the　village
in　reference　to　the　common　lands。　The　relation　in　which　the
village　stands　to　them　is　not　that　of　proprietor。　They　belong
according　to　law　to　the　State　alone。　In　those　villages　which　are
occupied　by　the　so…called　〃State…peasants；〃　that　is　the　heirs　of
the　serfs　lately　belonging　to　the　〃public　domains；〃　no　means　have
been　adopted　to　allow　of　the　peasant　becoming　even　in　future　the
proprietor　of　the　soil。　Such；　however；　is　not　the　case　in　those
communes；　which　have　been　established　on　lands　lately　belonging
to　the　nobility。　As　soon　as　the　peasants　on　each　estate　have　paid
back　the　money　advanced　by　the　State　to　facilitate　the
acquisition　of　the　land　which　the　proprietor　was　forced　to　give
up　to　them；　they　become　the　legal　proprietors　of　the　soil　they
now　occupy。　This　payment　may　be　made　by　the　whole　commune　or　by
the　separate　households　which　belong　to　it。　Five　millions　of
roubles　had　been　already　devoted　to　this　purpose　up　to　the　year
1881；　later　statistics　are　still　wanting。　Each　time　that　the
payment　is　made　by　a　separate　household；　common　property　is　of
course　superseded　by　private　property　and　this　enactment　is
rightly　considered　by　Russian　publicists　as　prejudicial　to　the
further　maintenance　of　agrarian　communism。　*
　　　　The　commune　exercises　its　proprietary　rights　in　different
ways。　It　keeps　the　waste…land　and　forests　undivided；　and　makes
periodical　allotments　of　arable　and　meadow　land。　it　was　most
prejudicial　to　the　welfare　of　the　peasants　that　the　obligatory
expropriation　of　1861　did　not　extend　to　a　part　at　least　of　the
waste…land　of　the　manor；　held　previously　to　that　date　in　common
by　the　manorial　lord　and　his　serfs。　We　must　acknowledge　that　in
this　respect　the　government　of　the　old　French　monarchy；　that　of
Louis　XIII　and　of　Louis　XIV；　showed　a　far　greater　knowledge　of
the　economic　wants　of　the　agricultural　classes。　The　so…called
〃triages〃　secured　to　the　peasants　the　right　of　exclusive
enjoyment　to　at　least　a　third　of　the　manorial　wastes　and　woods。
Nothing　which　corresponds　to　those　triages　has　been　established
in　Russia。　The　result　of　this　can　be　seen　in　the　need　which　the
peasant　is　under　o