lecture iii-第6章

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Nothing　which　corresponds　to　those　triages　has　been　established
in　Russia。　The　result　of　this　can　be　seen　in　the　need　which　the
peasant　is　under　of　diminishing　year　by　year　the　number　of　his
cattle；　a　condition　of　things　which　has　already　re…acted　on　the
state　of　agriculture。　In　those　cases　where　the　village　has　had　no
access　to　the　waste　land；　it　has　been　obliged　to　carve　out　of　its
arable　ground　a　special　field　to　serve　as　a　common　pasture。　But
this　can　only　be　done　where　the　allotments　made　out　of　the
manorial　land　are　of　large　extent。　In　the　greater　number　of
villages　they　have　not　amounted　to　more　than　three　dessiatines　a
head；　and　the　commoners　have　been　forced　to　content　themselves
either　with　sending　their　cattle　on　to　the　〃Lammas〃　lands；　that
is；　the　arable　land　after　harvest；　or　with　renting　some　pasture
ground　from　a　neighbouring　squire。
　　　　As　for　the　forests；　allotments　out　of。　them　were　rarely　made；
at　least　in　our　Southern　provinces　where　woods　are　scarce；　and
the　peasant　is　quite　dependent　for　his　fuel　on　the　squire；　who
takes　advantage　of　this　fact；　and　secures　the　regular　performance
of　agricultural　labour　on　his　own　domains　in　return　for
permission　to　use　the　dead　wood　which　would　otherwise　lie　unused。
In　the　northern　provinces　allotments　were　frequently　made　of
forests；　and　were　sometimes　treated　as　〃assart　lands。〃　I　make　use
of　a　term　which　is　probably　quite　familiar　to　you；　as　it　is
frequently　to　be　met　with　in　English　documents　even　of　the　first
part　of　the　present　century。　But　for　those　who　are　not　aware　of
its　meaning　I　will　add　the　following　explanation。　When　population
became　dense；　the　village　allowed　new　homesteads　to　be
established　in　the　middle　of　the　forest　the　trees　were　burned
down；　the　roots　seldom　being　removed；　and　the　plough　began　to
work　in　a　region　which　had　hitherto　been　accessible　only　to　the
axe。　The　area　thus　cleared　for　a　time　paid　nothing　to　the　State；
but　after　a　few　years；　three　as　a　rule；　it　was　annexed　to　the
number　of　common　lands　which　were　burdened　by　personal　taxes。　The
owners　of　these　cleared　lands　received　no　allotments　out　of　the
common　fields；　but　they　regularly　paid　to　the　Government　as　much
as　the　commoners　of　the　same　village。
　　　　We　must　now　turn　our　attention　to　the　way　in　which　the　arable
land　and　the　meadows　are　used。　Equality　being　the　chief　aim　of
the　members　of　the　village　community；　its　arable　fields　are　as　a
rule　very　numerous。　The　commoners　take　into　account　both　the
differences　in　the　fertility　of　the　soil　and　the　comparative
advantages　of　its　situation。　Land　which　is　either　mountainous　or
distant　from　the　village　is　not　likely　to　produce　the　same
revenue；　or　to　be　so　easily　cultivated　as　an　equal　area　to　it；
the　black　soil　is　far　more　fruitful　than　the　sandy　or　the　clayey
soil。　The　community；　therefore；　has　a　great　number　of　〃shots〃　or
〃furlongs；〃　*　and　in　each　of　these　shots　every　householder
receives　a　number　of　strips　equal　to　the　number　of　the　taxed
persons　in　his　household。　You　can　easily　imagine　how　scattered
and　intermixed　are　the　possessions　of　each　homestead。　In　cases
where　there　is　no　great　difference　in　the　fertility　of　the　soil；
and　the　shots　are　consequently　not　very　numerous；　the　community
sometimes　adopts　a　different　method。　The　whole　number　of
commoners　is　divided　into　〃tythings；〃　or　decenas；　and　the　fields
are　divided　into　as　many　parts　as　there　are　tythings。　Each
tything；　or　decena；　then　makes　the　division　for　itself。　Lots　are
drawn　to　decide　the　order　in　which　the　strips　must　be　distributed
among　the　tythings　and　subdivided　among　the　persons　composing
them。*　Owing　to　the　almost　universal　preva1ence　of　the
three…field　system；　the　number　of　shots　never　falls　below　three。
　　　　The　re…allotment　of　shares　is　of　two　kinds；　partial　and
general。　The　first　supposes　the　increase　or　diminution　of　the
number　of　strips　assigned　to　a　household；　consequent　on　an
augmentation　or　decrease　of　the　number　of　persons　composing　it。
The　second　is　equivalent　to　a　complete　change　in　the　distribution
of。　arable　land　among　the　commoners。　It　takes　place　at　fixed
periods；　the　shortest　of　which　is　three　years；　that　being　the
time　needed　for　a　complete　rotation　of　crops　under　the　existing
three　fields'　system；　and　the　longest　nineteen　or　more　years　
the　number　of　years　that　separate　the　old　census　of　a　population
from　a　new　one。　The　number　of　shares　allotted　to　each　household
either　corresponds　to　the　number　of　male　persons　for　whom　the
household　pays　the　personal　tax；　or　to　that　of　the　souls　actually
living。　Instances　occur　in　which　the　villagers　assign　half　shares
to　the　women；　or　reserve　certain　shares　unoccupied　for　the
generation　to　come。　As　for　the　meadows；　they　are　frequently　mown
in　common；　the　hay　being　divided　in　equal　parts　among　all　the
members　of　the　commune。　Very　often；　too；　a　yearly　division　takes
place　before　harvest；　account　is　taken　of　the　greater　or　smaller
distance　of　each　meadow　from　the　village；　and　of　the　quality　of
its　grass；　and　then　each　commoner　receives　a　strip　in　all　and
every　one　of　the　meadows。　But　I　need　not　insist　on　the　various
aspects　under　which　the　system　of　re…allotments　may　present
itself。　It　is　not　my　purpose　to　give　you　a　complete　description
of　the　various　forms　which　the　village　community　may　take；　but　a
general　picture　of　all　its　characteristic　features。
　　　　Amongst　these　I　must　place　the　control　exercised　by　the
village　authorities　over　the　performance　at　the　proper　time　of
each　part　of　agricultural　labour。　The　strips　of　the　several
households　being　scattered　over　the　whole　village　area；　and
intermixed　with　those　of　their　neighbours；　the　same　system　of
agriculture　must　of　necessity　be　followed　by　all。　The　system　in
use；　as　I　have　already　told　you；　is　that　of　the　three　fields；　the
winter；　the　summer；　and　the　fallow；　the　fields　becoming　common
pasture　after　the　gathering　in　of　the　harvest。　All　agricultural
labour　must　therefore　begin　and　end　at　fixed　periods；　and　the
different　households　which　constitute　the　village　must　do　their
ploughing；　sowing；　harrowing；　mowing　and　reaping；　precisely　at
the　same　time。　The　authorities　of　the　village　are　empowered　to
insist　upon　this；　the　〃Flurzwang；〃　to　use　a　well　known　German
expression；　is　a　necessary　condition　of　this　kind　of　agrarian
communism；　which　is　embodied　in　the　system　of　the　mir。
　　　　The　performance　at　its　proper　time　of　each　part　of
agricultural　labour　could　not　be　attained　if　the　commoners　did
not　help　one　another　in　its　accomplishment。　This　is　the　real
origin　of　the　obligation　which　compels　every　peasant　to　help　his
neighbours　in　mowing　and　reaping。　This　sort　of　communal　help；
regularly　performed　at　harvest　time；　is　known　in　Russia　under　the
name　of　〃village　assistance。〃　It　was　under　like　conditions　that
the　medieval　lovebones；　or　love　boons　（angariae　autumni）；　took
their　rise　in　England。
　　　　The　feeling　of　mutual　dependence；　which　has　its　origin　in　the
common　ownership　and　use　of　land；　is　the　source　from　which
springs　another　curious　institution。　Certain　agricultural　lands
remain　undivided　and　are　cultivated　by　the　combined　work　of　the
whole　village；　their　yearly　produce　being　regularly　brought　to
the　common　store　and　equally　distributed　among　all　in　case　of
dearth。
　　　　In　Russian　villages　there　are　no　special　〃poor〃　or　〃school
lands〃　（Armen…und　Schulguter）；　similar　to　those　of　Switzerland　or
Germany；　although　the　question　has　been　recently　raised　as　to　the
desirability　of　assigning　certain　shares　of　the　common　lands　to
the　schoolmaster；　he　being　authorised　to　cultivate　them　with　the
help　of　his　pupils。　This　plan　for　turning　the　schoolmaster　into
an　agricultural　labourer　belongs　to　the　number　of　those　measures；
by　which　the　reactionary　party　hope　to　prevent　the　badly　paid
village　schoolmasters　from　becoming　what　they　call　〃revolutionary
dreamers。〃　I　am　happy　to　say　that　it　has　not　yet　met　with　the
support　of　the　Government。
　　　　I　now　come　to　the　capital　question　of　the　advantages　and
disadvantages；　which　the　system　of　village　communities　presents；
and　which　will　of　course　exercise　a　decisive　influence　as　to　its
future。　There　is　no　question　so　much　discussed；　and　I　may　say；　so
often　misunderstood　by　my　countrymen；　as　that　of　the　superiority
or　inferiority　of　the　existing　system　in　comparison　with　that　of
small　holdings。
　　　　Both　socialists　and　reactionaries　have　taken　hold　of　the
question；　and　both　parties　try　to　work　it　out　in　favour　of　their
own　systems。　The　value　which　they　attach　to　the　system　of　the　mir
differs　considerably。　What　the　socialists　admire　in　it　are　the
fruitful　germs　which　they　suppose　it　to　contain　of　a　future
reorganisation　of　society　on　their　own　model。　As　to　the
Slavophils；　they　think　it　perfect　in　its　present　form；　and　never
tire　of　repeating　a　saying　which；　with　doubtful　authenticity；　is
attributed　to　the　great　Cavour：　〃Russia　will　revolutionise　the
world　with　her　system　of　the　mir。〃
　　　　To　an　impartial　observer　the　village　communal　system　appears
to　be　a　compound　of　small　advantages　and　great　disadvantages；　the
advantages　are　rather　of　a　moral；　and　the　disadvantages　of　an
economic　character。　It　encourages；　no　doubt；　to　a　much　greater
degree　than　the　system　of　private　holdings；　the　feeling　of　mutual
interdependence　and　the　inclination　to　mutual　help；　without　which
no　society　can　exist。　But　it　is　a　manifest　error　to　speak　of　this
system　as　a　serious　barrier　to　pauperism。　For；　although　the
commoner　is　prevented　by　law　from　alienating　his　share；　he　may；
and　often　does；　dispose　of　it　in　favour　of　some　rich　neighbour；
who　in　time　of　want　has　offered　to　pay　the　amount　of　the
commoner's　taxes　on　condition　of　having　the　use　of　his　land。　If
the　Slavophils　were　right　in　their　opinion；　that；　thanks　to　the
system　of　the　mir；　pauperism　was　impossible　in　Russia；　we　should
certainly　not　hear　daily　of　the　so…called　〃Koulaks〃　eating　up　the
mir；　or；　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　sacrificing　the　interests
of　the　community　to　their　own。
　　　　The　economic　disadvantages　which　the　system　presents　are　so
evident　that　I　need　scarcely　insist　upon　them。　Instead　of　giving
my　own　opinion　on　this　subject；　I　prefer　to　quote　the　words　of　a
Russian　economist；　who　is　far　from　belonging　to　the　much　decried
Manchester　School。　〃Agrarian　communism；　as　it　is　applied　in
Russia；〃　says　Professor　Ivanukov；　〃is　a　hindrance　to　the
investment　of　capital　in　agriculture；　and　to　the　introduction　of
a　more　thorough；　a　better　and　more　remunerative　system　of
cultivation；　for　the　strips　belonging　to　this　or　that　homestead
will　in　case　of　each　new　division　pass　into　strange　hands；　so
that　the　peasant　does　not　find　it　to　his　interest　to　lay　out
money　which　could　only　be　recovered　during　a　long　term　of
possession。〃　It　is　true　that　local　inquirers　have　been　able　to
produce　several　instances　in　which　peasant　commoners　have
introduced　a　somewhat　thorough　system　of　grass　sowing；*　but　we
must　not　forget　that　this　has　been　done　during　a　period　when　the
readjustment　of　lots　was　rare。
　　　　We　must　not　forget；　too；　one　great　disadvantage　of　the　mir
system；　which　consists　in　the　fact　that　wherever　it　exists；　the
pieces　of　land　belonging　to　the　same　holder　ar