the psychology of revolution-第37章

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until　a　master　should　re…establish　order；　while　promising　to

maintain　not　only　the　moral　but　also　the　material　conquests　of

the　Revolution。　　Bonaparte　realised　these　anxieties；　and　was

promptly　and　enthusiastically　welcomed。　　Material　conquests　which

were　still　contestable　and　theoretical　principles　which　were

still　fragile　were　by　him　incorporated　in　institutions　and　the

laws。　　It　is　an　error　to　say　that　the　Revolution　terminated　with

his　advent。　　Far　from　destroying　it；　he　ratified　and　consolidated

it。







CHAPTER　II



THE　RESTORATION　OF　ORDER。　　THE　CONSULAR　REPUBLIC



1。　　How　the　Work　of　the　Revolution　was　Confirmed　by　the

Consulate。



The　history　of　the　Consulate　is　as　rich　as　the　preceding　period

in　psychological　material。　　In　the　first　place　it　shows　us　that

the　work　of　a　powerful　individual　is　superior　to　that　of　a

collectivity。　　Bonaparte　immediately　replaced　the　bloody　anarchy

in　which　the　Republic　had　for　ten　years　been　writhing　by　a　period

of　order。　　That　which　none　of　the　four　Assemblies　of　the

Revolution　had　been　able　to　realise；　despite　the　most　violent

oppression；　a　single　man　accomplished　in　a　very　short　space　of

time。



His　authority　immediately　put　an　end　to　all　the　Parisian

insurrections　and　the　attempts　at　monarchical　resistance；　and　re…

established　the　moral　unity　of　France；　so　profoundly　divided　by

intense　hatreds。　　Bonaparte　replaced　an　unorganised　collective

despotism　by　a　perfectly　organised　individual　despotism。　

Everyone　gained　thereby；　for　his　tyranny　was　infinitely　less

heavy　than　that　which　had　been　endured　for　ten　long　years。　　We

must　suppose；　moreover；　that　it　was　unwelcome　to　very　few；　as　it

was　very　soon　accepted　with　immense　enthusiasm。



We　know　better　to…day　than　to　repeat　with　the　old　historians　that

Bonaparte　overthrew　the　Republic。　　On　the　contrary；　he　retained

of　it　all　that　could　be　retained；　and　never　would　have　been

retained　without　him；　by　establishing　all　the　practicable　work　of

the　Revolutionthe　abolition　of　privileges；　equality　before　the

law；　&c。in　institutions　and　codes　of　law。　　The　Consular

Government　continued；　moreover；　to　call　itself　the　Republic。



It　is　infinitely　probable　that　without　the　Consulate　a

monarchical　restoration　would　have　terminated　the　Directory；　and

would　have　wiped　out　the　greater　part　of　the　work　of　the

Revolution。　　Let　us　suppose　Bonaparte　erased　from　history。　　No

one；　I　think；　will　imagine　that　the　Directory　could　have　survived

the　universal　weariness　of　its　rule。　　It　would　certainly　have

been　overturned　by　the　royalist　conspiracies　which　were　breaking

out　daily；　and　Louis　XVIII。　would　probably　have　ascended　the

throne。　　Certainly　he　was　to　mount　it　sixteen　years　later；　but

during　this　interval　Bonaparte　gave　such　force　to　the　principles

of　the　Revolution；　by　establishing　them　in　laws　and　customs；　that

the　restored　sovereign　dared　not　touch　them；　nor　restore　the

property　of　the　returned　emigres。



Matters　would　have　been　very　different　had　Louis　XVIII。

immediately　followed　the　Directory。　　He　would　have　brought　with

him　all　the　absolutism　of　the　ancien　regime；　and　fresh

revolutions　would　have　been　necessary　to　abolish　it。　　We　know

that　a　mere　attempt　to　return　to　the　past　overthrew　Charles　X。



It　would　be　a　little　ingenuous　to　complain　of　the　tyranny

of　Bonaparte。　　Under　the　ancien　regime　Frenchmen　had

supported　every　species　of　tyranny；　and　the　Republic　had　created

a　despotism　even　heavier　than　that　of　the　monarchy。　　Despotism

was　then　a　normal　condition；　which　aroused　no　protest　save　when

it　was　accompanied　by　disorder。



A　constant　law　of　the　psychology　of　crowds　shows　them　as　creating

anarchy；　and　then　seeking　the　master　who　will　enable　them　to

emerge　therefrom。　　Bonaparte　was　this　master。





2。　　The　Reorganisation　of　France　by　the　Consulate。





Upon　assuming　power　Bonaparte　undertook　a　colossal　task。　　All　was

in　ruins；　all　was　to　be　rebuilt。　　On　the　morrow　of　the　coup　of

Brumaire　he　drafted；　almost　single…handed；　the　Constitution

destined　to　give　him　the　absolute　power　which　was　to　enable　him

to　reorganise　the　country　and　to　prevail　over　the　factions。　　In　a

month　it　was　completed。



This　Constitution；　known　as　that　of　the　year　VIII。；　survived；

with　slight　modifications；　until　the　end　of　his　reign。　　The

executive　power　was　the　attribute　of　three　Consuls；　two　of　whom

possessed　a　consultative　voice　only。　　The　first　Consul；

Bonaparte；　was　therefore　sole　master　of　France。　　He　appointed

ministers；　councillors　of　state；　ambassadors；　magistrates；　and

other　officials；　and　decided　upon　peace　or　war。　　The　legislative

power　was　his　also；　since　only　he　could　initiate　the　laws；　which

were　subsequently　submitted　to　three　Assembliesthe　Council　of

State；　the　Tribunate；　and　the　Legislative　Corps。　　A　fourth

Assembly；　the　Senate；　acted　effectually　as　the　guardian　of

the　Constitution。



Despotic　as　he　was　and　became；　Bonaparte　always　called　the　other

Consuls　about　him　before　proceeding　with　the　most　trivial

measure。　　The　Legislative　Corps　did　not　exercise　much　influence

during　his　reign；　but　he　signed　no　decrees　of　any　kind　without

first　discussing　them　with　the　Council　of　State。　　This　Council；

composed　of　the　most　enlightened　and　learned　men　of　France；

prepared　laws；　which　were　then　presented　to　the　Legislative

Corps；　which　could　criticise　them　very　freely；　since　voting　was

secret。　　Presided　over　by　Bonaparte；　the　Council　of　State　was　a

kind　of　sovereign　tribunal；　judging　even　the　actions　of

ministers。＇9＇







＇9＇　Napoleon　naturally　often　overruled　the　Council　of　State；　but

by　no　means　always　did　so。　　In　one　instance；　reported　in　the

Memorial　de　Sainte…Helene；　he　was　the　only　one　of　his　own

opinion；　and　accepted　that　of　the　majority　in　the　following

terms：　　‘‘Gentlemen；　matters　are　decided　here　by　majority；　and

being　alone；　I　must　give　way；　but　I　declare　that　in　my　conscience

I　yield　only　to　form。　　You　have　reduced　me　to　silence；　but　in　no

way　convinced　me。''



Another　day　the　Emperor；　interrupted　three　times　in　the

expression　of　his　opinion；　addressed　himself　to　the　speaker　who

had　just　interrupted　him：　　‘‘Sir；　I　have　not　yet　finished；　I　beg

you　to　allow　me　to　continue。　　After　all；　it　seems　to　me　that

every　one　has　a　perfect　right　to　express　his　opinion　here。''



‘‘The　Emperor；　contrary　to　the　accepted　opinion；　was　so　far　from

absolute；　and　so　easy　with　his　Council　of　State；　that　he　often

resumed　a　discussion；　or　even　annulled　a　decision；　because　one　of

the　members　of　the　Council　had　since；　in　private；　given　him　fresh

reasons；　or　had　urged　that　the　Emperor's　personal　opinion　had

influenced　the　majority。''









The　new　master　had　great　confidence　in　this　Council；　as　it　was

composed　more　particularly　of　eminent　jurists；　each　of　whom　dealt

with　his　own　speciality。　　He　was　too　good　a　psychologist　not　to

entertain　the　greatest　suspicion　of　large　and　incompetent

assemblies　of　popular　origin；　whose　disastrous　results　had　been

obvious　to　him　during　the　whole　of　the　Revolution。



Wishing　to　govern　for　the　people；　but　never　with　its　assistance；

Bonaparte　accorded　it　no　part　in　the　government；　reserving　to　it

only　the　right　of　voting；　once　for　all；　for　or　against　the

adoption　of　the　new　Constitution。　　He　only　in　rare　instances　had

recourse　to　universal　suffrage。　　The　members　of　the　Legislative

Corps　recruited　themselves；　and　were　not　elected　by　the　people。



In　creating　a　Constitution　intended　solely　to　fortify　his　own

power；　the　First　Consul　had　no　illusion　that　it　would　serve　to

restore　the　country。　　Consequently；　while　he　was　drafting　it　he

also　undertook　the　enormous　task　of　the　administrative；　judicial；

and　financial　reorganisation　of　France。　　The　various　powers　were

centralised　in　Paris。　　Each　department　was　directed　by　a　prefect；

assisted　by　a　consul…general；　the　arrondissement　by　a　sub…

prefect；　assisted　by　a　council；　the　commune　by　a　mayor；　assisted

by　a　municipal　council。　　All　were　appointed　by　the　ministers；　and

not　by　election；　as　under　the　Republic。



This　system；　which　created　the　omnipotent　State　and　a　powerful

centralisation；　was　retained　by　all　subsequent　Governments　and　is

preserved　to…day。　　Centralisation　being；　in　spite　of　its

drawbacks；　the　only　means　of　avoiding　local　tyrannies　in　a

country　profoundly　divided　within　itself；　has　always　been

maintained。



This　organisation；　based　on　a　profound　knowledge　of　the　soul　of

the　French　people；　immediately　restored　that　tranquillity　and

order　which　had　for　so　long　been　unknown。



To　complete　the　mental　pacification　of　the　country；　the　political

exiles　were　recalled　and　the　churches　restored　to　the　faithful。



Continuing　to　rebuild　the　social　edifice；　Bonaparte　busied

himself　also　with　the　drafting　of　a　code；　the　greater　part　of

which　consisted　of　customs　borrowed　from　the　ancien　regime。　

It　was；　as　has　been　said；　a　sort　of　transition　or　compromise

between　the　old　law　and　the　new。



Considering　the　enormous　task　accomplished　by　the　First　Consul　in

so　short　a　time；　we　realise　that　he　had　need；　before　all；　of　a

Constitution　according　him　absolute　power。　　If　all　the　measures

by　which　he　restored　France　had　been　submitted　to　assemblies　of

attorneys；　he　could　never　have　extricated　the　country　from　the

disorder　into　which　it　had　fallen。



The　Constitution　of　the　year　VIII。　obviously　transformed　the

Republic　into　a　monarchy　at　least　as　absolute　as　the　‘‘Divine

right''　monarchy　of　Louis　XIV。　　Being　the　only　Constitution

adapted　to　the　needs　of　the　moment；　it　represented　a

psychological　necessity。





3。　　Psychological　Elements　which　determined　the　Success　of　the

Work　of　the　Consulate。





All　the　external　forces　which　act　upon　meneconomic；　historical；

geographical；　&c。may　be　finally　translated　into　psychological

forces。　　These　psychological　forces　a　ruler　must　understand　in

order　to　govern。　　The　Revolutionary　Assemblies　were　completely

ignorant　of　them；　Bonaparte　knew　how　to　employ　them。



The　various　Assemblies；　the　Convention　notably；　were　composed　of

conflicting　parties。　　Napoleon　understood　that　to　dominate　them

he　must　not　belong　to　any　one　of　these　parties。　　Very　well　aware

that　the　value　of　a　country　is　disseminated　among　the　superior

intelligences　of　the　various　parties；　he　tried　to　utilise　them

all。　　His　agents　of　governmentministers；　priests；　magistrates；

&c。were　taken　indifferently　from　among　the　Liberals；　Royalists；

Jacobites；　&c。；　having　regard　only　to　their　capacities。



While　accepting　the　assistance　of　men　of　the　ancien　regime；

Bonaparte　took　care　to　make　it　understood　that　he　intended　to

maintain　the　fundamental　principles　of　the　Revolution。　

Nevertheless　many　Royalists　rallied　round　the　new　Government。



One　of　the　most　remarkable　feats　of　the　Consulate；　from　the

psychological　point　of　view；　was