the psychology of revolution-第36章

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Observing　everywhere　a　Catholic　renascence；　and　imagining　that

the　clergy　were　conspiring　against　them；　the　Directors　deported

or　sent　to　the　galleys　in　one　year　1；448　priests；　to　say　nothing

of　a　large　number　who　were　summarily　executed。　　The　Terror　was　in

reality　completely　re…established。



The　autocratic　despotism　of　the　Directory　was　exercised　in　all

the　branches　of　the　administration；　notably　the　finances。　　Thus；

having　need　of　six　hundred　million　francs；　it　forced　the

deputies；　always　docile；　to　vote　a　progressive　impost；　which

yielded；　however；　only　twelve　millions。　　Being　presently　in　the

same　condition；　it　decreed　a　forced　loan　of　a　hundred　millions；

which　resulted　in　the　closing　of　workshops；　the　stoppage　of

business；　and　the　dismissal　of　domestics。　　It　was　only　at　the

price　of　absolute　ruin　that　forty　millions　could　be　obtained。



To　assure　itself　of　domination　in　the　provinces　the　Directory

caused　a　so…called　law　of　hostages　to　be　passed；　according　to

which　a　list　of　hostages；　responsible　for　all　offences；　was　drawn

up　in　each　commune。



It　is　easy　to　understand　what　hatred　such　a　system　provoked。　　At

the　end　of　1799　fourteen　departments　were　in　revolt　and　forty…six

were　ready　to　rise。　　If　the　Directory　had　lasted　the　dissolution

of　society　would　have　been　complete。



For　that　matter；　this　dissolution　was　far　advanced。　　Finances；

administration；　everything　was　crumbling。　　The　receipts　of　the

Treasury；　consisting　of　depreciated　assignats　fallen　to　a

hundredth　part　of　their　original　value；　were　negligible。　　Holders

of　Government　stock　and　officers　could　no　longer　obtain　payment。



France　at　this　time　gave　travellers　the　impression　of　a　country

ravaged　by　war　and　abandoned　by　its　inhabitants。　　The　broken

bridges　and　dykes　and　ruined　buildings　made　all　traffic

impossible。　　The　roads；　long　deserted；　were　infested　by　brigands。



Certain　departments　could　only　be　crossed　at　the　price　of　buying

a　safe…conduct　from　the　leaders　of　these　bands。　　Industry

and　commerce　were　annihilated。　　In　Lyons　13；000　workshops　and

mills　out　of　15；000　had　been　forced　to　close。　　Lille；　Havre；

Bordeaux；　Lyons；　Marseilles；　&c。；　were　like　dead　cities。　　Poverty

and　famine　were　general。



The　moral　disorganisation　was　no　less　terrible。　　Luxury　and　the

craving　for　pleasure；　costly　dinners；　jewels；　and　extravagant

households　were　the　appanage　of　a　new　society　composed　entirely

of　stock…jobbers；　army　contractors；　and　shady　financiers　enriched

by　pillage。　　They　gave　Paris　that　superficial　aspect　of　luxury

and　gaiety　which　has　deluded　so　many　historians　of　this　period；

because　the　insolent　prodigality　displayed　covered　the　general

misery。



The　chronicles　of　the　Directory　as　told　in　books　help　to　show　us

of　what　lies　the　web　of　history　is　woven。　　The　theatre　has　lately

got　hold　of　this　period；　of　which　the　fashions　are　still

imitated。　　It　has　left　the　memory　of　a　joyous　period　of　re…birth

after　the　gloomy　drama　of　the　Terror。　　In　reality　the　drama　of

the　Directory　was　hardly　an　improvement　on　the　Terror　and　was

quite　as　sanguinary。　　Finally；　it　inspired　such　loathing　that　the

Directors；　feeling　that　it　could　not　last；　sought　themselves　for

the　dictator　capable　of　replacing　it　and　also　of　protecting　them。





3。　　The　Advent　of　Bonaparte。





We　have　seen　that　at　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　anarchy　and

disorganisation　were　such　that　every　one　was　desperately　calling

for　the　man　of　energy　capable　of　re…establishing　order。　　As　early

as　1795　a　number　of　deputies　had　thought　for　a　moment　of　re…

establishing　royalty。　　Louis　XVIII。；　having　been　tactless

enough　to　declare　that　he　would　restore　the　ancien　regime　in

its　entirety；　return　all　property　to　its　original　owners；　and

punish　the　men　of　the　Revolution；　was　immediately　thrown　over。　

The　senseless　expedition　of　Quiberon　finally　alienated　the

supporters　of　the　future　sovereign。　　The　royalists　gave　a　proof

during　the　whole　of　the　Revolution　of　an　incapacity　and　a

narrowness　of　mind　which　justified　most　of　the　measures　taken

against　them。



The　monarchy　being　impossible；　it　was　necessary　to　find　a

general。　　Only　one　existed　whose　name　carried　weightBonaparte。　

The　campaign　in　Italy　had　just　made　him　famous。　　Having　crossed

the　Alps；　he　had　marched　from　victory　to　victory；　penetrated　to

Milan　and　Venice；　and　everywhere　obtained　important　war

contributions。　　He　then　made　towards　Vienna；　and　was　only　twenty…

five　leagues　from　its　gates　when　the　Emperor　of　Austria　decided

to　sue　for　peace。



But　great　as　was　his　renown；　the　young　general　did　not　consider

it　sufficient。　　To　increase　it　he　persuaded　the　Directory　that

the　power　of　England　could　be　shaken　by　an　invasion　of　Egypt；　and

in　May；　1798；　he　embarked　at　Toulon。



This　need　of　increasing　his　prestige　arose　from　a　very　sound

psychological　conception　which　he　clearly　expounded　at　St。

Helena：



‘‘The　most　influential　and　enlightened　generals　had　long　been

pressing　the　general　of　Italy　to　take　steps　to　place　himself　at

the　head　of　the　Republic。　　He　refused；　he　was　not　yet　strong

enough　to　walk　quite　alone。　　He　had　ideas　upon　the　art　of

governing　and　upon　what　was　necessary　to　a　great　nation

which　were　so　different　from　those　of　the　men　of　the

Revolution　and　the　assemblies　that；　not　being　able　to　act　alone；

he　feared　to　compromise　his　character。　　He　determined　to　set　out

for　Egypt；　but　resolved　to　reappear　if　circumstances　should　arise

to　render　his　presence　useful　or　necessary。''



Bonaparte　did　not　stay　long　in　Egypt。　　Recalled　by　his　friends；

he　landed　at　Frejus；　and　the　announcement　of　his　return　provoked

universal　enthusiasm。　　There　were　illuminations　everywhere。　

France　collaborated　in　advance　in　the　coup　d'etat　prepared

by　two　Directors　and　the　principal　ministers。　　The　plot　was

organised　in　three　weeks。　　Its　execution　on　the　18th　of　Brumaire

was　accomplished　with　the　greatest　ease。



All　parties　experienced　the　greatest　delight　at　being　rid　of　the

sinister　gangs　who　had　so　long　oppressed　and　exploited　the

country。　　The　French　were　doubtless　about　to　enter　upon　a

despotic　system　of　government；　but　it　could　not　be　so　intolerable

as　that　which　had　been　endured　for　so　many　years。



The　history　of　the　coup　d'etat　of　Brumaire　justifies　all

that　we　have　already　said　of　the　impossibility　of　forming　exact

judgments　of　events　which　apparently　are　fully　understood　and

attested　by　no　matter　how　many　witnesses。



We　know　what　ideas　people　had　thirty　years　ago　concerning　the

coup　of　Brumaire。　　It　was　regarded　as　a　crime　committed　by　the

ambition　of　a　man　who　was　supported　by　his　army。　　As　a　matter　of

fact　the　army　played　no　part　whatever　in　the　affair。　　The　little

body　of　men　who　expelled　the　few　recalcitrant　deputies　were　not

soldiers　even；　but　the　gendarmes　of　the　Assembly　itself。　　The

true　author　of　the　coup　d'etat　was　the　Government　itself；　with

the　complicity　of　all　France。





4。　　Causes　of　the　Duration　of　the　Revolution。





If　we　limit　the　Revolution　to　the　time　necessary　for　the　conquest

of　its　fundamental　principlesequality　before　the　law；　free

access　to　public　functions；　popular　sovereignty；　control　of

expenditures；　&c。we　may　say　that　it　lasted　only　a　few　months。　

Towards　the　middle　of　1789　all　this　was　accomplished；　and　during

the　years　that　followed　nothing　was　added　to　it；　yet　the

Revolution　lasted　much　longer。



Confining　the　duration　to　the　dates　admitted　by　the　official

historians；　we　see　it　persisting　until　the　advent　of　Bonaparte；　a

space　of　some　ten　years。



Why　did　this　period　of　disorganisation　and　violence　follow　the

establishment　of　the　new　principles？　　We　need　not　seek　the　cause

in　the　foreign　war；　which　might　on　several　occasions　have　been

terminated；　thanks　to　the　divisions　of　the　allies　and　the

constant　victories　of　the　French；　neither　must　we　look　for　it　in

the　sympathy　of　Frenchmen　for　the　revolutionary　Government。　

Never　was　rule　more　cordially　hated　and　despised　than　that　of　the

Assemblies。　　By　its　revolts　as　well　as　by　its　repeated　votes　a

great　part　of　the　nation　displayed　the　horror　with　which　it

regarded　the　system。



This　last　point；　the　aversion　of　France　for　the　revolutionary

regime；　so　long　misunderstood；　has　been　well　displayed　by

recent　historians。　　The　author　of　the　last　book　published　on　the

Revolution；　M。　Madelin；　has　well　summarised　their　opinion　in　the

following　words：



‘‘As　early　as　1793　a　party　by　no　means　numerous　had　seized　upon

France；　the　Revolution；　and　the　Republic。　　Now；　three…quarters　of

France　longed　for　the　Revolution　to　be　checked；　or　rather

delivered　from　its　odious　exploiters；　but　these　held　the　unhappy

country　by　a　thousand　means。　。　。　。　　As　the　Terror　was　essential

to　them　if　they　were　to　rule；　they　struck　at　whomsoever　seemed　at

any　given　moment　to　be　opposed　to　the　Terror；　were　they　the　best

servants　of　the　Revolution。''



Up　to　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　government　was　exercised　by

Jacobins；　who　merely　desired　to　retain；　along　with　the　supreme

power；　the　riches　they　had　accumulated　by　murder　and　pillage；　and

were　ready　to　surrender　France　to　any　one　who　would　guarantee

them　free　possession　of　these。　　That　they　negotiated　the　coup

d'etat　of　Brumaire　with　Napoleon　was　simply　to　the　fact　that

they　had　not　been　able　to　realise　their　wishes　with　regard　to

Louis　XVIII。



But　how　explain　the　fact　that　a　Government　so　tyrannical　and　so

dishonoured　was　able　to　survive　for　so　many　years？



It　was　not　merely　because　the　revolutionary　religion　still

survived　in　men's　minds；　nor　because　it　was　forced　on　them　by

means　of　persecution　and　bloodshed；　but　especially；　as　I　have

already　stated；　on　account　of　the　great　interest　which　a　large

portion　of　the　population　had　in　maintaining　it。



This　point　is　fundamental。　　If　the　Revolution　had　remained　a

theoretical　religion；　it　would　probably　have　been　of　short

duration。　　But　the　belief　which　had　just　been　founded　very

quickly　emerged　from　the　domain　of　pure　theory。



The　Revolution　did　not　confine　itself　to　despoiling　the　monarchy；

the　nobility；　and　the　clergy　of　their　powers　of　government。　　In

throwing　into　the　hands　of　the　bourgeoisie　and　the　large

numbers　of　peasantry　the　wealth　and　the　employments　of　the　old

privileged　classes　it　had　at　the　same　stroke　turned　them　into

obstinate　supporters　of　the　revolutionary　system。　　All　those　who

had　acquired　the　property　of　which　the　nobles　and　clergy　had　been

despoiled　had　obtained　lands　and　chateaux　at　low　prices；　and

were　terrified　lest　the　restoration　of　the　monarchy　should　force

them　to　make　general　restitution。



It　was　largely　for　these　reasons　that　a　Government　which；　at　any

normal　period；　would　never　have　been　endured；　was　able　to　survive

until　a　master　should　re…establish　order；　while　promising　to

maintain　not　only　the　moral　but　a