the psychology of revolution-第35章

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envious　feeling　which　accompanied　the　craving　for　equality　in

many　of　the　Jacobins。



‘‘The　majority　of　the　Jacobins；''　writes　M。　Madelin　‘‘were

greatly　enriched；　and　like　Chabot；　Bazire；　Merlin；　Barras；

Boursault；　Tallien；　Barrere；　&c。；　possessed　chateaux　and

estates。　　Those　who　were　not　wealthy　as　yet　were　soon　to　become

so。　。　。　　In　the　Committee　of　the　year　III。　alone　the　staff　of　the

Thermidorian　party　comprised　a　future　prince；　13　future　counts；　5

future　barons；　7　future　senators　of　the　Empire；　and　6　future

Councillors　of　State；　and　beside　them　in　the　Convention　there

were；　between　the　future　Duke　of　Otranto　to　the　future　Count

Regnault；　no　less　than　50　democrats　who　fifteen　years

later　possessed　titles；　coats　of　arms；　plumes；　carriages；

endowments；　entailed　estates；　hotels；　and　chateaux。　

Fouche　died　worth　L600；000。''



The　privileges　of　the　ancien　regime　which　had　been　so

bitterly　decried　were　thus　very　soon　re…established　for　the

benefit　of　the　bourgeoisie。　　To　arrive　at　this　result　it　was

necessary　to　ruin　France；　to　burn　entire　provinces；　to　multiply

suffering；　to　plunge　innumerable　families　into　despair；　to

overturn　Europe；　and　to　destroy　men　by　the　hundred　thousand　on

the　field　of　battle。



In　closing　this　chapter　we　will　recall　what　we　have　already　said

concerning　the　possibility　of　judging　the　men　of　this　period。



Although　the　moralist　is　forced　to　deal　severely　with　certain

individuals；　because　he　judges　them　by　the　types　which　society

must　respect　if　it　is　to　succeed　in　maintaining　itself；　the

psychologist　is　not　in　the　same　case。　　His　aim　is　to　understand；

and　criticism　vanishes　before　a　complete　comprehension。



The　human　mind　is　a　very　fragile　mechanism；　and　the　marionettes

which　dance　upon　the　stage　of　history　are　rarely　able　to　resist

the　imperious　forces　which　impel　them。　　Heredity；　environment；

and　circumstances　are　imperious　masters。　　No　one　can　say　with

certainty　what　would　have　been　his　conduct　in　the　place　of　the

men　whose　actions　he　endeavours　to　interpret。







BOOK　III



THE　CONFLICT　BETWEEN　ANCESTRAL　INFLUENCES　AND　REVOLUTIONARY

PRINCIPLES



CHAPTER　I



THE　LAST　CONVULSIONS　OF　ANARCHYTHE　DIRECTORY



1。　　The　Psychology　of　the　Directory。



As　the　various　revolutionary　assemblies　were　composed　in　part　of

the　same　men；　one　might　suppose　that　their　psychology　would　be

very　similar。



At　ordinary　periods　this　would　have　been　so；　for　a　constant

environment　means　constancy　of　character。　　But　when　circumstances

change　as　rapidly　as　they　did　under　the　Revolution；　character

must　perforce　transform　itself　to　adapt　itself　thereto。　　Such　was

the　case　with　the　Directory。



The　Directory　comprised　several　distinct　assemblies：　two　large

chambers；　consisting　of　different　categories　of　deputies；　and　one

very　small　chamber；　which　consisted　of　the　five　Directors。



The　two　larger　Assemblies　remind　one　strongly　of　the　Convention

by　their　weakness。　　They　were　no　longer　forced　to　obey　popular

riots；　as　these　were　energetically　prevented　by　the　Directors；

but　they　yielded　without　discussion　to　the　dictatorial

injunctions　of　the　latter。



The　first　deputies　to　be　elected　were　mostly　moderates。　　Everyone

was　weary　of　the　Jacobin　tyranny。　　The　new　Assembly　dreamed　of

rebuilding　the　ruins　with　which　France　was　covered；　and

establishing　a　liberal　government　without　violence。



But　by　one　of　those　fatalities　which　were　a　law　of　the

Revolution；　and　which　prove　that　the　course　of　events　is　often

superior　to　men's　wills；　these　deputies；　like　their　predecessors；

may　be　said　always　to　have　done　the　contrary　of　what　they　wished

to　do。　　They　hoped　to　be　moderate；　and　they　were　violent；　they

wanted　to　eliminate　the　influence　of　the　Jacobins；　and　they

allowed　themselves　to　be　led　by　them；　they　thought　to　repair　the

ruins　of　the　country　and　they　succeeded　only　in　adding　others　to

them；　they　aspired　to　religious　peace；　and　they　finally

persecuted　and　massacred　the　priests　with　greater　rigour　than

during　the　Terror。



The　psychology　of　the　little　assembly　formed　by　the　five

Directors　was　very　different　from　that　of　the　Chamber　of

Deputies。　　Encountering　fresh　difficulties　daily；　the　directors

were　forced　to　resolve　them；　while　the　large　Assemblies；　without

contact　with　realities；　had　only　their　aspirations。



The　prevailing　thought　of　the　Directors　was　very　simple。　　Highly

indifferent　to　principles；　they　wished　above　all　to　remain　the

masters　of　France。　　To　attain　that　result　they　did　not　shrink

from　resorting　to　the　most　illegitimate　measures；　even　annulling

the　elections　of　a　great　number　of　the　departments　when　these

embarrassed　them。



Feeling　themselves　incapable　of　reorganising　France；　they　left

her　to　herself。　　By　their　despotism　they　contrived　to　dominate

her；　but　they　never　governed　her。　　Now；　what　France　needed　more

than　anything　at　this　juncture　was　to　be　governed。



The　convention　has　left　behind　it　the　reputation　of　a　strong

Government；　and　the　Directory　that　of　a　weak　Government。　　The

contrary　is　true：　it　was　the　Directory　that　was　the　strong

Government。



Psychologically　we　may　readily　explain　the　difference　between　the

Government　of　the　Directory　and　that　of　the　preceding　Assemblies

by　recalling　the　fact　that　a　gathering　of　six　hundred　to　seven

hundred　persons　may　well　suffer　from　waves　of　contagious

enthusiasm；　as　on　the　night　of　the　4th　of　August；　or　even

impulses　of　energetic　will…power；　such　as　that　which　launched

defiance　against　the　kings　of　Europe。　　But　such　impulses　are　too

ephemeral　to　possess　any　great　force。　　A　committee　of　five

members；　easily　dominated　by　the　will　of　one；　is　far　more

susceptible　of　continuous　resolutionthat　is；　of　perseverance　in

a　settled　line　of　conduct。



The　Government　of　the　Directory　proved　to　be　always　incapable　of

governing；　but　it　never　lacked　a　strong　will。　　Nothing

restraining　it；　neither　respect　for　law　nor　consideration　for　the

citizens；　nor　love　of　the　public　welfare；　it　was　able　to　impose

upon　France　a　despotism　more　crushing　than　that　of　any　Government

since　the　beginning　of　the　Revolution；　not　excepting　the　Terror。



Although　it　utilised　methods　analogous　to　those　of　the

Convention；　and　ruled　France　in　the　most　tyrannical　manner；　the

Directory；　no　more　than　the　Convention；　was　never　the　master　of

France。



This　fact；　which　I　have　already　noted；　proves　once　more　the

impotence　of　material　constraint　to　dominate　moral　forces。　　It

cannot　be　too　often　repeated　that　the　true　guide　of　mankind　is

the　moral　scaffolding　erected　by　his　ancestors。



Accustomed　to　live　in　an　organised　society；　supported　by　codes

and　respected　traditions；　we　can　with　difficulty　represent　to

ourselves　the　condition　of　a　nation　deprived　of　such　a　basis。　　As

a　general　thing　we　only　see　the　irksome　side　of　our　environment；

too　readily　forgetting　that　society　can　exist　only　on　condition

of　imposing　certain　restraints；　and　that　laws；　manners；　and

custom　constitute　a　check　upon　the　natural　instincts　of　barbarism

which　never　entirely　perishes。



The　history　of　the　Convention　and　the　Directory　which　followed　it

shows　plainly　to　what　degree　disorder　may　overcome　a　nation

deprived　of　its　ancient　structure；　and　having　for　guide　only　the

artificial　combinations　of　an　insufficient　reason。





2。　　Despotic　Government　of　the　Directory。　　Recrudescence　of　the

Terror。





With　the　object　of　diverting　attention；　occupying　the　army；　and

obtaining　resources　by　the　pillage　of　neighbouring　countries；　the

Directors　decided　to　resume　the　wars　of　conquest　which　had

succeeded　under　the　Convention。



These　continued　during　the　life　time　of　the　Directory。　　The

armies　won　a　rich　booty；　especially　in　Italy。



Some　of　the　invaded　populations　were　so　simple　as　to　suppose　that

these　invasions　were　undertaken　in　their　interest。　　They　were　not

long　in　discovering　that　all　military　operations　were

accompanied　by　crushing　taxes　and　the　pillage　of　churches；　public

treasuries；　&c。



The　final　consequence　of　this　policy　of　conquest　was　the

formation　of　a　new　coalition　against　France；　which　lasted　until

1801。



Indifferent　to　the　state　of　the　country　and　incapable　of

reorganising　it；　the　Directors　were　principally　concerned　in

struggling　against　an　incessant　series　of　conspiracies　in　order

to　keep　in　power。



This　task　was　enough　to　occupy　their　leisure；　for　the　political

parties　had　not　disarmed。　　Anarchy　had　reached　such　a　point　that

all　were　calling　for　a　hand　powerful　enough　to　restore　order。　

Everyone　felt；　the　Directors　included；　that　the　republican　system

could　not　last　much　longer。



Some　dreamed　of　re…establishing　royalty；　others　the　Terrorist

system；　while　others　waited　for　a　general。　　Only　the　purchasers

of　the　national　property　feared　a　change　of　Government。



The　unpopularity　of　the　Directory　increased　daily；　and　when　in

May；　1797；　the　third　part　of　the　Assembly　had　to　be　renewed；　the

majority　of　those　elected　were　hostile　to　the　system。



The　Directors　were　not　embarrassed　by　a　little　thing　like　that。　

They　annulled　the　elections　in　49　departments；　154　of　the　new

deputies　were　invalidated　and　expelled；　53　condemned　to

deportation。　　Among　these　latter　figured　the　most　illustrious

names　of　the　Revolution：　　Portalis；　Carnot；　Tronson　du　Coudray；

&c。



To　intimidate　the　electors；　military　commissions　condemned　to

death；　rather　at　random；　160　persons；　and　sent　to　Guiana　330；　of

whom　half　speedily　died。　　The　emigres　and　priests　who

had　returned　to　France　were　violently　expelled。　　This　was　known

as　the　coup　d'etat　of　Fructidor。



This　coup；　which　struck　more　especially　at　the　moderates；　was

not　the　only　one　of　its　kind；　another　quickly　followed。　　The

Directors；　finding　the　Jacobin　deputies　too　numerous；　annulled

the　elections　of　sixty　of　them。



The　preceding　facts　displayed　the　tyrannical　temper　of　the

Directors；　but　this　appeared　even　more　plainly　in　the　details　of

their　measures。　　The　new　masters　of　France　also　proved　to　be　as

bloodthirsty　as　the　most　ferocious　deputies　of　the　Terror。



The　guillotine　was　not　re…established　as　a　permanency；　but

replaced　by　deportation　under　conditions　which　left　the　victims

little　chance　of　survival。　　Sent　to　Rochefort　in　cages　of　iron

bars；　exposed　to　all　the　severities　of　the　weather；　they　were

then　packed　into　boats。



‘‘Between　the　decks　of　the　Decade　and　the　Bayonnaise；''

says　Taine；　‘‘the　miserable　prisoners；　suffocated　by　the　lack　of

air　and　the　torrid　heat；　bullied　and　fleeced；　died　of　hunger　or

asphyxia；　and　Guiana　completed　the　work　of　the　voyage：　of　193

taken　thither　by　the　Decade　39　were　left　alive　at　the　end　of

twenty…two　months；　of　120　taken　by　the　Bayonnaise　1　remained。



Observing　everywhere　a　Catholic　renascence；　and　imagining　that

the　clergy　were　conspirin