wealbk05-第3章

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prompt　obedience；　even　in　the　beginning　of　a　modern　battle。　In　an

ancient　battle　there　was　no　noise　but　what　arose　from　the　human

voice；　there　was　no　smoke；　there　was　no　invisible　cause　of　wounds

or　death。　Every　man；　till　some　mortal　weapon　actually　did

approach　him；　saw　clearly　that　no　such　weapon　was　near　him。　In

these　circumstances；　and　among　troops　who　had　some　confidence　in

their　own　skill　and　dexterity　in　the　use　of　their　arms；　it　must

have　been　a　good　deal　less　difficult　to　preserve　some　degree

regularity　and　order；　not　only　in　the　beginning；　but　through　the

whole　progress　of　an　ancient　battle；　and　till　one　of　the　two

armies　was　fairly　defeated。　But　the　habits　of　regularity；　order；

and　prompt　obedience　to　command　can　be　acquired　only　by　troops

which　are　exercised　in　great　bodies。

　　　　　A　militia；　however；　in　whatever　manner　it　may　be　either

disciplined　or　exercised；　must　always　be　much　inferior　to　a

well…disciplined　and　well…exercised　standing　army。

　　　　　The　soldiers　who　are　exercised　only　once　a　week；　or　once　a

month；　can　never　be　so　expert　in　the　use　of　their　arms　as　those

who　are　exercised　every　day；　or　every　other　day；　and　though　this

circumstance　may　not　be　of　so　much　consequence　in　modern　as　it

was　in　ancient　times；　yet　the　acknowledged　superiority　of　the

Prussian　troops；　owing；　it　is　said；　very　much　to　their　superior

expertness　in　their　exercise；　may　satisfy　us　that　it　is；　even　at

this　day；　of　very　considerable　consequence。

　　　　　The　soldiers　who　are　bound　to　obey　their　officer　only　once　a

week　or　once　a　month；　and　who　are　at　all　other　times　at　liberty

to　manage　their　own　affairs　their　own　way；　without　being　in　any

respect　accountable　to　him；　can　never　be　under　the　same　awe　in

his　presence；　can　never　have　the　same　disposition　to　ready

obedience；　with　those　whose　whole　life　and　conduct　are　every　day

directed　by　him；　and　who　every　day　even　rise　and　go　to　bed；　or　at

least　retire　to　their　quarters；　according　to　his　orders。　In　what

is　called　discipline；　or　in　the　habit　of　ready　obedience；　a

militia　must　always　be　still　more　inferior　to　a　standing　army

than　it　may　sometimes　be　in　what　is　called　the　manual　exercise；

or　in　the　management　and　use　of　its　arms。　But　in　modern　war　the

habit　of　ready　and　instant　obedience　is　of　much　greater

consequence　than　a　considerable　superiority　in　the　management　of

arms。

　　　　　Those　militias　which；　like　the　Tartar　or　Arab　militia；　go　to

war　under　the　same　chieftains　whom　they　are　accustomed　to　obey　in

peace　are　by　far　the　best。　In　respect　for　their　officers；　in　the

habit　of　ready　obedience；　they　approach　nearest　to　standing

armies。　The　highland　militia；　when　it　served　under　its　own

chieftains；　had　some　advantage　of　the　same　kind。　As　the

highlanders；　however；　were　not　wandering；　but　stationary

shepherds；　as　they　had　all　a　fixed　habitation；　and　were　not；　in

peaceable　times；　accustomed　to　follow　their　chieftain　from　place

to　place；　so　in　time　of　war　they　were　less　willing　to　follow　him

to　any　considerable　distance；　or　to　continue　for　any　long　time　in

the　field。　When　they　had　acquired　any　booty　they　were　eager　to

return　home；　and　his　authority　was　seldom　sufficient　to　detain

them。　In　point　of　obedience　they　were　always　much　inferior　to

what　is　reported　of　the　Tartars　and　Arabs。　As　the　highlanders

too；　from　their　stationary　life；　spend　less　of　their　time　in　the

open　air；　they　were　always　less　accustomed　to　military　exercises；

and　were　less　expert　in　the　use　of　their　arms　than　the　Tartars

and　Arabs　are　said　to　be。

　　　　　A　militia　of　any　kind；　it　must　be　observed；　however；　which

has　served　for　several　successive　campaigns　in　the　field；　becomes

in　every　respect　a　standing　army。　The　soldiers　are　every　day

exercised　in　the　use　of　their　arms；　and；　being　constantly　under

the　command　of　their　officers；　are　habituated　to　the　same　prompt

obedience　which　takes　place　in　standing　armies。　What　they　were

before　they　took　the　field　is　of　little　importance。　They

necessarily　become　in　every　respect　a　standing　army　after　they

have　passed　a　few　campaigns　in　it。　Should　the　war　in　America　drag

out　through　another　campaign；　the　American　militia　may　become　in

every　respect　a　match　for　that　standing　army　of　which　the　valour

appeared；　in　the　last　war；　at　least　not　inferior　to　that　of　the

hardiest　veterans　of　France　and　Spain。

　　　　　This　distinction　being　well　understood；　the　history　of　all

ages；　it　will　be　found；　bears　testimony　to　the　irresistible

superiority　which　a　well…regulated　standing　army　has　over　a

militia。

　　　　　One　of　the　first　standing　armies　of　which　we　have　any

distinct　account；　in　any　well　authenticated　history；　is　that　of

Philip　of　Macedon。　His　frequent　wars　with　the　Thracians；

Illyrians；　Thessalians；　and　some　of　the　Greek　cities　in　the

neighbourhood　of　Macedon；　gradually　formed　his　troops；　which　in

the　beginning　were　probably　militia；　to　the　exact　discipline　of　a

standing　army。　When　he　was　at　peace；　which　he　was　very　seldom；

and　never　for　any　long　time　together；　he　was　careful　not　to

disband　that　army。　It　vanquished　and　subdued；　after　a　long　and

violent　struggle；　indeed；　the　gallant　and　well　exercised　militias

of　the　principal　republics　of　ancient　Greece；　and　afterwards；

with　very　little　struggle；　the　effeminate　and　ill…exercised

militia　of　the　great　Persian　empire。　The　fall　of　the　Greek

republics　and　of　the　Persian　empire　was　the　effect　of　the

irresistible　superiority　which　a　standing　army　has　over　every

sort　of　militia。　It　is　the　first　great　revolution　in　the　affairs

of　mankind　of　which　history　has　preserved　any　distinct　or

circumstantial　account。

　　　　　The　fall　of　Carthage；　and　the　consequent　elevation　of　Rome；

is　the　second。　All　the　varieties　in　the　fortune　of　those　two

famous　republics　may　very　well　be　accounted　for　from　the　same

cause。

　　　　　From　the　end　of　the　first　to　the　beginning　of　the　second

Carthaginian　war　the　armies　of　Carthage　were　continually　in　the

field；　and　employed　under　three　great　generals；　who　succeeded　one

another　in　the　command：　Hamilcar；　his　son…in…law　Hasdrubal；　and

his　son　Hannibal；　first　in　chastising　their　own　rebellious

slaves；　afterwards　in　subduing　the　revolted　nations　of　Africa；

and；　lastly；　in　conquering　the　great　kingdom　of　Spain。　The　army

which　Hannibal　led　from　Spain　into　Italy　must　necessarily；　in

those　different　wars；　have　been　gradually　formed　to　the　exact

discipline　of　a　standing　army。　The　Romans；　in　the　meantime；

though　they　had　not　been　altogether　at　peace；　yet　they　had　not；

during　this　period；　been　engaged　in　any　war　of　very　great

consequence；　and　their　military　discipline；　it　is　generally　said；

was　a　good　deal　relaxed。　The　Roman　armies　which　Hannibal

encountered　at　Trebia；　Thrasymenus；　and　Cannae　were　militia

opposed　to　a　standing　army。　This　circumstance；　it　is　probable；

contributed　more　than　any　other　to　determine　the　fate　of　those

battles。

　　　　　The　standing　army　which　Hannibal　left　behind　him　in　Spain

had　the　like　superiority　over　the　militia　which　the　Romans　sent

to　oppose　it；　and　in　a　few　years；　under　the　command　of　his

brother；　the　younger　Hasdrubal；　expelled　them　almost　entirely

from　that　country。

　　　　　Hannibal　was　ill　supplied　from　home。　The　Roman　militia；

being　continually　in　the　field；　became　in　the　progress　of　the　war

a　well　disciplined　and　well…exercised　standing　army；　and　the

superiority　of　Hannibal　grew　every　day　less　and　less。　Hasdrubal

judged　it　necessary　to　lead　the　whole；　or　almost　the　whole　of　the

standing　army　which　he　commanded　in　Spain；　to　the　assistance　of

his　brother　in　Italy。　In　this　march　he　is　said　to　have　been

misled　by　his　guides；　and　in　a　country　which　he　did　not　know；　was

surprised　and　attacked　by　another　standing　army；　in　every　respect

equal　or　superior　to　his　own；　and　was　entirely　defeated。

　　　　　When　Hasdrubal　had　left　Spain；　the　great　Scipio　found

nothing　to　oppose　him　but　a　militia　inferior　to　his　own。　He

conquered　and　subdued　that　militia；　and；　in　the　course　of　the

war；　his　own　militia　necessarily　became　a　well…disciplined　and

well…exercised　standing　army。　That　standing　army　was　afterwards

carried　to　Africa；　where　it　found　nothing　but　a　militia　to　oppose

it。　In　order　to　defend　Carthage　it　became　necessary　to　recall　the

standing　army　of　Hannibal。　The　disheartened　and　frequently

defeated　African　militia　joined　it；　and；　at　the　battle　of　Zama；

composed　the　greater　part　of　the　troops　of　Hannibal。　The　event　of

that　day　determined　the　fate　of　the　two　rival　republics。

　　　　　From　the　end　of　the　second　Carthaginian　war　till　the　fall　of

the　Roman　republic；　the　armies　of　Rome　were　in　every　respect

standing　armies。　The　standing　army　of　Macedon　made　some

resistance　to　their　arms。　In　the　height　of　their　grandeur　it　cost

them　two　great　wars；　and　three　great　battles；　to　subdue　that

little　kingdom；　of　which　the　conquest　would　probably　have　been

still　more　difficult　had　it　not　been　for　the　cowardice　of　its

last　king。　The　militias　of　all　the　civilised　nations　of　the

ancient　world；　of　Greece；　of　Syria；　and　of　Egypt；　made　but　a

feeble　resistance　to　the　standing　armies　of　Rome。　The　militias　of

some　barbarous　nations　defended　themselves　much　better。　The

Scythian　or　Tartar　militia；　which　Mithridates　drew　from　the

countries　north　of　the　Euxine　and　Caspian　seas；　were　the　most

formidable　enemies　whom　the　Romans　had　to　encounter　after　the

second　Carthaginian　war。　The　Parthian　and　German　militias；　too；

were　always　respectable；　and　upon　several　occasions　gained　very

considerable　advantages　over　the　Roman　armies。　In　general；

however；　and　when　the　Roman　armies　were　well　commanded；　they

appear　to　have　been　very　much　superior；　and　if　the　Romans　did　not

pursue　the　final　conquest　either　of　Parthia　or　Germany；　it　was

probably　because　they　judged　that　it　was　not　worth　while　to　add

those　two　barbarous　countries　to　an　empire　which　was　already　too

large。　The　ancient　Parthians　appear　to　have　been　a　nation　of

Scythian　or　Tartar　extraction；　and　to　have　always　retained　a　good

deal　of　the　manners　of　their　ancestors。　The　ancient　Germans　were；

like　the　Scythians　or　Tartars；　a　nation　of　wandering　shepherds；

who　went　to　war　under　the　same　chiefs　whom　they　were　accustomed

to　follow　in　peace。　Their　militia　was　exactly　of　the　same　kind

with　that　of　the　Scythians　or　Tartars；　from　whom；　too；　they　were

probably　descended。

　　　　　Many　different　causes　contributed　to　relax　the　discipline　of

the　Roman　armies。　Its　extreme　severity　was；　perhaps；　one　of　those

causes。　In　the　days　of　their　grandeur；　when　no　enemy　appeared

capable　of　opposing　them；　their　heavy　armour　was　laid　aside　as

unnecessarily　burdensome；　their　labourious　exercises　were

neglected　as　unnecessarily　toilsome。　Under　the　Roman　emperors；

besides；　the　standing　armies　of　Rome；　those　particularly　which

guarded　the　German　and　Pannonian　frontiers；　became　dangerous　to

their　masters；　against　whom　they　used　frequently　to　set　up　t