wealbk05-第4章

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guarded　the　German　and　Pannonian　frontiers；　became　dangerous　to

their　masters；　against　whom　they　used　frequently　to　set　up　their

own　generals。　In　order　to　render　them　less　formidable；　according

to　some　authors；　Dioclesian；　according　to　others；　Constantine；

first　withdrew　them　from　the　frontier；　where　they　had　always

before　been　encamped　in　great　bodies；　generally　of　two　or　three

legions　each；　and　dispersed　them　in　small　bodies　through　the

different　provincial　towns；　from　whence　they　were　scarce　ever

removed　but　when　it　became　necessary　to　repel　an　invasion。　Small

bodies　of　soldiers　quartered；　in　trading　and　manufacturing　towns；

and　seldom　removed　from　those　quarters；　became　themselves

tradesmen；　artificers；　and　manufacturers。　The　civil　came　to

predominate　over　the　military　character；　and　the　standing　armies

of　Rome　gradually　degenerated　into　a　corrupt；　neglected；　and

undisciplined　militia；　incapable　of　resisting　the　attack　of　the

German　and　Scythian　militias；　which　soon　afterwards　invaded　the

western　empire。　It　was　only　by　hiring　the　militia　of　some　of

those　nations　to　oppose　to　that　of　others　that　the　emperors　were

for　some　time　able　to　defend　themselves。　The　fall　of　the　western

empire　is　the　third　great　revolution　in　the　affairs　of　mankind　of

which　ancient　history　has　preserved　any　distinct　or

circumstantial　account。　It　was　brought　about　by　the　irresistible

superiority　which　the　militia　of　a　barbarous　has　over　that　of　a

civilised　nation；　which　the　militia　of　a　nation　of　shepherds　has

over　that　of　a　nation　of　husbandmen；　artificers；　and

manufacturers。　The　victories　which　have　been　gained　by　militias

have　generally　been；　not　over　standing　armies；　but　over　other

militias　in　exercise　and　discipline　inferior　to　themselves。　Such

were　the　victories　which　the　Greek　militia　gained　over　that　of

the　Persian　empire；　and　such　too　were　those　which　in　later　times

the　Swiss　militia　gained　over　that　of　the　Austrians　and

Burgundians。

　　　　　The　military　force　of　the　German　and　Scythian　nations　who

established　themselves　upon　the　ruins　of　the　western　empire

continued　for　some　time　to　be　of　the　same　kind　in　their　new

settlements　as　it　had　been　in　their　original　country。　It　was　a

militia　of　shepherds　and　husbandmen；　which；　in　time　of　war；　took

the　field　under　the　command　of　the　same　chieftains　whom　it　was

accustomed　to　obey　in　peace。　It　was；　therefore；　tolerably　well

exercised；　and　tolerably　well　disciplined。　As　arts　and　industry

advanced；　however；　the　authority　of　the　chieftains　gradually

decayed；　and　the　great　body　of　the　people　had　less　time　to　spare

for　military　exercises。　Both　the　discipline　and　the　exercise　of

the　feudal　militia；　therefore；　went　gradually　to　ruin；　and

standing　armies　were　gradually　introduced　to　supply　the　place　of

it。　When　the　expedient　of　a　standing　army；　besides；　had　once　been

adopted　by　one　civilised　nation；　it　became　necessary　that　all　its

neighbours　should　follow　their　example。　They　soon　found　that

their　safety　depended　upon　their　doing　so；　and　that　their　own

militia　was　altogether　incapable　of　resisting　the　attack　of　such

an　army。

　　　　　The　soldiers　of　a　standing　army；　though　they　may　never　have

seen　an　enemy；　yet　have　frequently　appeared　to　possess　all　the

courage　of　veteran　troops　and　the　very　moment　that　they　took　the

field　to　have　been　fit　to　face　the　hardiest　and　most　experienced

veterans。　In　1756；　when　the　Russian　army　marched　into　Poland；　the

valour　of　the　Russian　soldiers　did　not　appear　inferior　to　that　of

the　Prussians；　at　that　time　supposed　to　be　the　hardiest　and　most

experienced　veterans　in　Europe。　The　Russian　empire；　however；　had

enjoyed　a　profound　peace　for　near　twenty　years　before；　and　could

at　that　time　have　very　few　soldiers　who　had　ever　seen　an　enemy。

When　the　Spanish　war　broke　out　in　1739；　England　had　enjoyed　a

profound　peace　for　about　eight…and…twenty　years。　The　valour　of

her　soldiers；　however；　far　from　being　corrupted　by　that　long

peace；　was　never　more　distinguished　than　in　the　attempt　upon

Carthagena；　the　first　unfortunate　exploit　of　that　unfortunate

war。　In　a　long　peace　the　generals；　perhaps；　may　sometimes　forget

their　skill；　but；　where　a　well…regulated　standing　army　has　been

kept　up；　the　soldiers　seem　never　to　forget　their　valour。

　　　　　When　a　civilised　nation　depends　for　its　defence　upon　a

militia；　it　is　at　all　times　exposed　to　be　conquered　by　any

barbarous　nation　which　happens　to　be　in　its　neighbourhood。　The

frequent　conquests　of　all　the　civilised　countries　in　Asia　by　the

Tartars　sufficiently　demonstrates　the　natural　superiority　which

the　militia　of　a　barbarous　has　over　that　of　a　civilised　nation。　A

well…regulated　standing　army　is　superior　to　every　militia。　Such

an　army；　as　it　can　best　be　maintained　by　an　opulent　and　civilised

nation；　so　it　can　alone　defend　such　a　nation　against　the　invasion

of　a　poor　and　barbarous　neighbour。　It　is　only　by　means　of　a

standing　army；　therefore；　that　the　civilization　of　any　country

can　be　perpetuated；　or　even　preserved　for　any　considerable　time。

　　　　　As　it　is　only　by　means　of　a　well…regulated　standing　army

that　a　civilised　country　can　be　defended；　so　it　is　only　by　means

of　it　that　a　barbarous　country　can　be　suddenly　and　tolerably

civilised。　A　standing　army　establishes；　with　an　irresistible

force；　the　law　of　the　sovereign　through　the　remotest　provinces　of

the　empire；　and　maintains　some　degree　of　regular　government　in

countries　which　could　not　otherwise　admit　of　any。　Whoever

examines；　with　attention；　the　improvements　which　Peter　the　Great

introduced　into　the　Russian　empire；　will　find　that　they　almost

all　resolve　themselves　into　the　establishment　of　a　well　regulated

standing　army。　It　is　the　instrument　which　executes　and　maintains

all　his　other　regulations。　That　degree　of　order　and　internal

peace　which　that　empire　has　ever　since　enjoyed　is　altogether

owing　to　the　influence　of　that　army。

　　　　　Men　of　republican　principles　have　been　jealous　of　a　standing

army　as　dangerous　to　liberty。　It　certainly　is　so　wherever　the

interest　of　the　general　and　that　of　the　principal　officers　are

not　necessarily　connected　with　the　support　of　the　constitution　of

the　state。　The　standing　army　of　Caesar　destroyed　the　Roman

republic。　The　standing　army　of　Cromwell　turned　the　Long

Parliament　out　of　doors。　But　where　the　sovereign　is　himself　the

general；　and　the　principal　nobility　and　gentry　of　the　country　the

chief　officers　of　the　army；　where　the　military　force　is　placed

under　the　command　of　those　who　have　the　greatest　interest　in　the

support　of　the　civil　authority；　because　they　have　themselves　the

greatest　share　of　that　authority；　a　standing　army　can　never　be

dangerous　to　liberty。　On　the　contrary；　it　may　in　some　cases　be

favourable　to　liberty。　The　security　which　it　gives　to　the

sovereign　renders　unnecessary　that　troublesome　jealousy；　which；

in　some　modern　republics；　seems　to　watch　over　the　minutest

actions；　and　to　be　at　all　times　ready　to　disturb　the　peace　of

every　citizen。　Where　the　security　of　the　magistrate；　though

supported　by　the　principal　people　of　the　country；　is　endangered

by　every　popular　discontent；　where　a　small　tumult　is　capable　of

bringing　about　in　a　few　hours　a　great　revolution；　the　whole

authority　of　government　must　be　employed　to　suppress　and　punish

every　murmur　and　complaint　against　it。　To　a　sovereign；　on　the

contrary；　who　feels　himself　supported；　not　only　by　the　natural

aristocracy　of　the　country；　but　by　a　well…regulated　standing

army；　the　rudest；　the　most　groundless；　and　the　most　licentious

remonstrances　can　give　little　disturbance。　He　can　safely　pardon

or　neglect　them；　and　his　consciousness　of　his　own　superiority

naturally　disposes　him　to　do　so。　That　degree　of　liberty　which

approaches　to　licentiousness　can　be　tolerated　only　in　countries

where　the　sovereign　is　secured　by　a　well…regulated　standing　army。

It　is　in　such　countries　only　that　the　public　safety　does　not

require　that　the　sovereign　should　be　trusted　with　any

discretionary　power　for　suppressing　even　the　impertinent

wantonness　of　this　licentious　liberty。

　　　　　The　first　duty　of　the　sovereign；　therefore；　that　of

defending　the　society　from　the　violence　and　injustice　of　other

independent　societies；　grows　gradually　more　and　more　expensive　as

the　society　advances　in　civilization。　The　military　force　of　the

society；　which　originally　cost　the　sovereign　no　expense　either　in

time　of　peace　or　in　time　of　war；　must；　in　the　progress　of

improvement；　first　be　maintained　by　him　in　time　of　war；　and

afterwards　even　in　time　of　peace。

　　　　　The　great　change　introduced　into　the　art　of　war　by　the

invention　of　firearms　has　enhanced　still　further　both　the　expense

of　exercising　and　disciplining　any　particular　number　of　soldiers

in　time　of　peace；　and　that　of　employing　them　in　time　of　war。　Both

their　arms　and　their　ammunition　are　become　more　expensive。　A

musket　is　a　more　expensive　machine　than　a　javelin　or　a　bow　and

arrows；　a　cannon　or　a　mortar　than　a　balista　or　a　catapulta。　The

powder　which　is　spent　in　a　modern　review　is　lost　irrecoverably；

and　occasions　a　very　considerable　expense。　The　javeline　and

arrows　which　were　thrown　or　shot　in　an　ancient　one　could　easily

be　picked　up　again；　and　were　besides　of　very　little　value。　The

cannon　and　the　mortar　are　not　only　much　dearer；　but　much　heavier

machines　than　the　balista　or　catapulta；　and　require　a　greater

expense；　not　only　to　prepare　them　for　the　field；　but　to　carry

them　to　it。　As　the　superiority　of　the　modern　artillery　too　over

that　of　the　ancients　is　very　great；　it　has　become　much　more

difficult；　and　consequently　much　more　expensive；　to　fortify　a

town　so　as　to　resist　even　for　a　few　weeks　the　attack　of　that

superior　artillery。　In　modern　times　many　different　causes

contribute　to　render　the　defence　of　the　society　more　expensive。

The　unavoidable　effects　of　the　natural　progress　of　improvement

have；　in　this　respect；　been　a　good　deal　enhanced　by　a　great

revolution　in　the　art　of　war；　to　which　a　mere　accident；　the

invention　of　gunpowder；　seems　to　have　given　occasion。

　　　　　In　modern　war　the　great　expense　of　firearms　gives　an　evident

advantage　to　the　nation　which　can　best　afford　that　expense；　and

consequently　to　an　opulent　and　civilised　over　a　poor　and

barbarous　nation。　In　ancient　times　the　opulent　and　civilised

found　it　difficult　to　defend　themselves　against　the　poor　and

barbarous　nations。　In　modern　times　the　poor　and　barbarous　find　it

difficult　to　defend　themselves　against　the　opulent　and　civilised。

The　invention　of　firearms；　an　invention　which　at　first　sight

appears　to　be　so　pernicious；　is　certainly　favourable　both　to　the

permanency　and　to　the　extension　of　civilization。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　PART　2

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Expense　of　Justice　

　　　　　THE　second　duty　of　the　sovereign；　that　of　protecting；　as　far

as　possible；　every　member　of　the　society　from　the　injustice　or

oppression　of　every　other　member　of　it；