wealbk05-第2章

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seem　to　have　been　generally　composed　of　mercenary　troops；

consisting；　indeed；　partly　of　citizens；　but　partly　too　of

foreigners；　and　all　of　them　equally　hired　and　paid　at　the　expense

of　the　state。　From　the　time　of　the　siege　of　Veii；　the　armies　of

Rome　received　pay　for　their　service　during　the　time　which　they

remained　in　the　field。　Under　the　feudal　governments　the　military

service　both　of　the　great　lords　and　of　their　immediate　dependants

was；　after　a　certain　period；　universally　exchanged　for　a　payment

in　money；　which　was　employed　to　maintain　those　who　served　in

their　stead。

　　　　　The　number　of　those　who　can　go　to　war；　in　proportion　to　the

whole　number　of　the　people；　is　necessarily　much　smaller　in　a

civilised　than　in　a　rude　state　of　society。　In　a　civilised

society；　as　the　soldiers　are　maintained　altogether　by　the　labour

of　those　who　are　not　soldiers；　the　number　of　the　former　can　never

exceed　what　the　latter　can　maintain；　over　and　above　maintaining；

in　a　manner　suitable　to　their　respective　stations；　both

themselves　and　the　other　officers　of　government　and　law　whom　they

are　obliged　to　maintain。　In　the　little　agrarian　states　of　ancient

Greece；　a　fourth　or　a　fifth　part　of　the　whole　body　of　the　people

considered　themselves　as　soldiers；　and　would　sometimes；　it　is

said；　take　a　field。　Among　the　civilised　nations　of　modern　Europe；

it　is　commonly　computed　that　not　more　than　one…hundredth　part　of

the　inhabitants　in　any　country　can　be　employed　as　soldiers

without　ruin　to　the　country　which　pays　the　expenses　of　their

service。

　　　　　The　expense　of　preparing　the　army　for　the　field　seems　not　to

have　become　considerable　in　any　nation　till　long　after　that　of

maintaining　it　in　the　field　had　devolved　entirely　upon　the

sovereign　or　commonwealth。　In　all　the　different　republics　of

ancient　Greece；　to　learn　his　military　exercises　was　a　necessary

part　of　education　imposed　by　the　state　upon　every　free　citizen。

In　every　city　there　seems　to　have　been　a　public　field；　in　which；

under　the　protection　of　the　public　magistrate；　the　young　people

were　taught　their　different　exercises　by　different　masters。　In

this　very　simple　institution　consisted　the　whole　expense　which

any　Grecian　state　seems　ever　to　have　been　at　in　preparing　its

citizens　for　war。　In　ancient　Rome　the　exercises　of　the　Campus

Martius　answered　the　same　purpose　with　those　of　the　Gymnasium　in

ancient　Greece。　Under　the　feudal　governments；　the　many　public

ordinances　that　the　citizens　of　every　district　should　practise

archery　as　well　as　several　other　military　exercises　were　intended

for　promoting　the　same　purpose；　but　do　not　seem　to　have　promoted

it　so　well。　Either　from　want　of　interest　in　the　officers

entrusted　with　the　execution　of　those　ordinances；　or　from　some

other　cause；　they　appear　to　have　been　universally　neglected；　and

in　the　progress　of　all　those　governments；　military　exercises　seem

to　have　gone　gradually　into　disuse　among　the　great　body　of　the

people。

　　　　　In　the　republics　of　ancient　Greece　and　Rome；　during　the

whole　period　of　their　existence；　and　under　the　feudal　governments

for　a　considerable　time　after　their　first　establishment；　the

trade　of　a　soldier　was　not　a　separate；　distinct　trade；　which

constituted　the　sole　or　principal　occupation　of　a　particular

class　of　citizens。　Every　subject　of　the　state；　whatever　might　be

the　ordinary　trade　or　occupation　by　which　he　gained　his

livelihood；　considered　himself；　upon　all　ordinary　occasions；　as

fit　likewise　to　exercise　the　trade　of　a　soldier；　and　upon　many

extraordinary　occasions　as　bound　to　exercise　it。

　　　　　The　art　of　war；　however；　as　it　is　certainly　the　noblest　of

all　arts；　so　in　the　progress　of　improvement　it　necessarily

becomes　one　of　the　most　complicated　among　them。　The　state　of　the

mechanical；　as　well　as　of　some　other　arts；　with　which　it　is

necessarily　connected；　determines　the　degree　of　perfection　to

which　it　is　capable　of　being　carried　at　any　particular　time。　But

in　order　to　carry　it　to　this　degree　of　perfection；　it　is

necessary　that　it　should　become　the　sole　or　principal　occupation

of　a　particular　class　of　citizens；　and　the　division　of　labour　is

as　necessary　for　the　improvement　of　this；　as　of　every　other　art。

Into　other　arts　the　division　of　labour　is　naturally　introduced　by

the　prudence　of　individuals；　who　find　that　they　promote　their

private　interest　better　by　confining　themselves　to　a　particular

trade　than　by　exercising　a　great　number。　But　it　is　the　wisdom　of

the　state　only　which　can　render　the　trade　of　a　soldier　a

particular　trade　separate　and　distinct　from　all　others。　A　private

citizen　who；　in　time　of　profound　peace；　and　without　any

particular　encouragement　from　the　public；　should　spend　the

greater　part　of　his　time　in　military　exercises；　might；　no　doubt；

both　improve　himself　very　much　in　them；　and　amuse　himself　very

well；　but　he　certainly　would　not　promote　his　own　interest。　It　is

the　wisdom　of　the　state　only　which　can　render　it　for　his　interest

to　give　up　the　greater　part　of　his　time　to　this　peculiar

occupation：　and　states　have　not　always　had　this　wisdom；　even　when

their　circumstances　had　become　such　that　the　preservation　of

their　existence　required　that　they　should　have　it。

　　　　　A　shepherd　has　a　great　deal　of　leisure；　a　husbandman；　in　the

rude　state　of　husbandry；　has　some；　an　artificer　or　manufacturer

has　none　at　all。　The　first　may；　without　any　loss；　employ　a　great

deal　of　his　time　in　martial　exercises；　the　second　may　employ　some

part　of　it；　but　the　last　cannot　employ　a　single　hour　in　them

without　some　loss；　and　his　attention　to　his　own　interest

naturally　leads　him　to　neglect　them　altogether。　These

improvements　in　husbandry　too；　which　the　progress　of　arts　and

manufactures　necessarily　introduces；　leave　the　husbandman　as

little　leisure　as　the　artificer。　Military　exercises　come　to　be　as

much　neglected　by　the　inhabitants　of　the　country　as　by　those　of

the　town；　and　the　great　body　of　the　people　becomes　altogether

unwarlike。　That　wealth；　at　the　same　time；　which　always　follows

the　improvements　of　agriculture　and　manufactures；　and　which　in

reality　is　no　more　than　the　accumulated　produce　of　those

improvements；　provokes　the　invasion　of　all　their　neighbours。　An

industrious；　and　upon　that　account　a　wealthy　nation；　is　of　all

nations　the　most　likely　to　be　attacked；　and　unless　the　state

takes　some　new　measures　for　the　public　defence；　the　natural

habits　of　the　people　render　them　altogether　incapable　of

defending　themselves。

　　　　　In　these　circumstances　there　seem　to　be　but　two　methods　by

which　the　state　can　make　any　tolerable　provision　for　the　public

defence。

　　　　　It　may　either；　first；　by　means　of　a　very　rigorous　police；

and　in　spite　of　the　whole　bent　of　the　interest；　genius；　and

inclinations　of　the　people；　enforce　the　practice　of　military

exercises；　and　oblige　either　all　the　citizens　of　the　military

age；　or　a　certain　number　of　them；　to　join　in　some　measure　the

trade　of　a　soldier　to　whatever　other　trade　or　profession　they　may

happen　to　carry　on。

　　　　　Or；　secondly；　by　maintaining　and　employing　a　certain　number

of　citizens　in　the　constant　practice　of　military　exercises；　it

may　render　the　trade　of　a　soldier　a　particular　trade；　separate

and　distinct　from　all　others。

　　　　　If　the　state　has　recourse　to　the　first　of　those　two

expedients；　its　military　force　is　said　to　consist　in　a　militia；

if　to　the　second；　it　is　said　to　consist　in　a　standing　army。　The

practice　of　military　exercises　is　the　sole　or　principal

occupation　of　the　soldiers　of　a　standing　army；　and　the

maintenance　or　pay　which　the　state　affords　them　is　the　principal

and　ordinary　fund　of　their　subsistence。　The　practice　of　military

exercises　is　only　the　occasional　occupation　of　the　soldiers　of　a

militia；　and　they　derive　the　principal　and　ordinary　fund　of　their

subsistence　from　some　other　occupation。　In　a　militia；　the

character　of　the　labourer；　artificer；　or　tradesman；　predominates

over　that　of　the　soldier；　in　a　standing　army；　that　of　the　soldier

predominates　over　every　other　character：　and　in　this　distinction

seems　to　consist　the　essential　difference　between　those　two

different　species　of　military　force。

　　　　　Militias　have　been　of　several　different　kinds。　In　some

countries　the　citizens　destined　for　defending　the　states　seem　to

have　been　exercised　only；　without　being；　if　I　may　say　so；

regimented；　that　is；　without　being　divided　into　separate　and

distinct　bodies　of　troops；　each　of　which　performed　its　exercises

under　its　own　proper　and　permanent　officers。　In　the　republics　of

ancient　Greece　and　Rome；　each　citizen；　as　long　as　he　remained　at

home；　seems　to　have　practised　his　exercises　either　separately　and

independently；　or　with　such　of　his　equals　as　he　liked　best；　and

not　to　have　been　attached　to　any　particular　body　of　troops　till

he　was　actually　called　upon　to　take　the　field。　In　other

countries；　the　militia　has　not　only　been　exercised；　but

regimented。　In　England；　in　Switzerland；　and；　I　believe；　in　every

other　country　of　modern　Europe　where　any　imperfect　military　force

of　this　kind　has　been　established；　every　militiaman　is；　even　in

time　of　peace；　attached　to　a　particular　body　of　troops；　which

performs　its　exercises　under　its　own　proper　and　permanent

officers。

　　　　　Before　the　invention　of　firearms；　that　army　was　superior　in

which　the　soldiers　had；　each　individually；　the　greatest　skill　and

dexterity　in　the　use　of　their　arms。　Strength　and　agility　of　body

were　of　the　highest　consequence；　and　commonly　determined　the

state　of　battles。　But　this　skill　and　dexterity　in　the　use　of

their　arms　could　be　acquired　only；　in　the　same　manner　as　fencing

is　at　present；　by　practising；　not　in　great　bodies；　but　each　man

separately；　in　a　particular　school；　under　a　particular　master；　or

with　his　own　particular　equals　and　companions。　Since　the

invention　of　firearms；　strength　and　agility　of　body；　or　even

extraordinary　dexterity　and　skill　in　the　use　of　arms；　though　they

are　far　from　being　of　no　consequence；　are；　however；　of　less

consequence。　The　nature　of　the　weapon；　though　it　by　no　means　puts

the　awkward　upon　a　level　with　the　skilful；　puts　him　more　nearly

so　than　he　ever　was　before。　All　the　dexterity　and　skill；　it　is

supposed；　which　are　necessary　for　using　it；　can　be　well　enough

acquired　by　practising　in　great　bodies。

　　　　　Regularity；　order；　and　prompt　obedience　to　command　are

qualities　which；　in　modern　armies；　are　of　more　importance　towards

determining　the　fate　of　battles　than　the　dexterity　and　skill　of

the　soldiers　in　the　use　of　their　arms。　But　the　noise　of　firearms；

the　smoke；　and　the　invisible　death　to　which　every　man　feels

himself　every　moment　exposed　as　soon　as　he　comes　within

cannon…shot；　and　frequently　a　long　time　before　the　battle　can　be

well　said　to　be　engaged；　must　render　it　very　difficult　to

maintain　any　considerable　degree　of　this　regularity；　order；　and

prompt　obedience；　even　in　the　beginning　of　a　modern　battle。　In　an