wealbk05-第1章

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AN　INQUIRY　INTO　THE　NATURE　AND　CAUSES　OF　THE　WEALTH　OF　NATIONS



by　Adam　Smith



1776









　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　BOOK　FIVE



　　　　　　　OF　THE　REVENUE　OF　THE　SOVEREIGN　OR　COMMONWEALTH







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　I

　　　　　　　Of　the　Expenses　of　the　Sovereign　or　Commonwealth







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　PART　1

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Expense　of　Defence



　　　　THE　first　duty　of　the　sovereign；　that　of　protecting　the

society　from　the　violence　and　invasion　of　other　independent

societies；　can　be　performed　only　by　means　of　a　military　force。

But　the　expense　both　of　preparing　this　military　force　in　time　of

peace；　and　of　employing　it　in　time　of　war；　is　very　different　in

the　different　states　of　society；　in　the　different　periods　of

improvement。

　　　　　Among　nations　of　hunters；　the　lowest　and　rudest　state　of

society；　such　as　we　find　it　among　the　native　tribes　of　North

America；　every　man　is　a　warrior　as　well　as　a　hunter。　When　he　goes

to　war；　either　to　defend　his　society　or　to　revenge　the　injuries

which　have　been　done　to　it　by　other　societies；　he　maintains

himself　by　his　own　labour　in　the　same　manner　as　when　he　lives　at

home。　His　society；　for　in　this　state　of　things　there　is　properly

neither　sovereign　nor　commonwealth；　is　at　no　sort　of　expense；

either　to　prepare　him　for　the　field；　or　to　maintain　him　while　he

is　in　it。

　　　　　Among　nations　of　shepherds；　a　more　advanced　state　of

society；　such　as　we　find　it　among　the　Tartars　and　Arabs；　every

man　is；　in　the　same　manner；　a　warrior。　Such　nations　have　commonly

no　fixed　habitation；　but　live　either　in　tents　or　in　a　sort　of

covered　waggons　which　are　easily　transported　from　place　to　place。

The　whole　tribe　or　nation　changes　its　situation　according　to　the

different　seasons　of　the　year；　as　well　as　according　to　other

accidents。　When　its　herds　and　flocks　have　consumed　the　forage　of

one　part　of　the　country；　it　removes　to　another；　and　from　that　to

a　third。　In　the　dry　season　it　comes　down　to　the　banks　of　the

rivers；　in　the　wet　season　it　retires　to　the　upper　country。　When

such　a　nation　goes　to　war；　the　warriors　will　not　trust　their

herds　and　flocks　to　the　feeble　defence　of　their　old　men；　their

women　and　children；　and　their　old　men；　their　women　and　children；

will　not　be　left　behind　without　defence　and　without　subsistence。

The　whole　nation；　besides；　being　accustomed　to　a　wandering　life；

even　in　time　of　peace；　easily　takes　the　field　in　time　of　war。

Whether　it　marches　as　an　army；　or　moves　about　as　a　company　of

herdsmen；　the　way　of　life　is　nearly　the　same；　though　the　object

proposed　by　it　be　very　different。　They　all　go　to　war　together；

therefore；　and　every　one　does　as　well　as　he　can。　Among　the

Tartars；　even　the　women　have　been　frequently　known　to　engage　in

battle。　If　they　conquer；　whatever　belongs　to　the　hostile　tribe　is

the　recompense　of　the　victory。　But　if　they　are　vanquished；　all　is

lost；　and　not　only　their　herds　and　flocks；　but　their　women　and

children；　become　the　booty　of　the　conqueror。　Even　the　greater

part　of　those　who　survive　the　action　are　obliged　to　submit　to　him

for　the　sake　of　immediate　subsistence。　The　rest　are　commonly

dissipated　and　dispersed　in　the　desert。

　　　　　The　ordinary　life；　the　ordinary　exercises　of　a　Tartar　or

Arab；　prepare　him　sufficiently　for　war。　Running；　wrestling；

cudgel…playing；　throwing　the　javelin；　drawing　the　bow；　etc。；　are

the　common　pastimes　of　those　who　live　in　the　open　air；　and　are

all　of　them　the　images　of　war。　When　a　Tartar　or　Arab　actually

goes　to　war；　he　is　maintained　by　his　own　herds　and　flocks　which

he　carries　with　him　in　the　same　manner　as　in　peace。　His　chief　or

sovereign；　for　those　nations　have　all　chiefs　or　sovereigns；　is　at

no　sort　of　expense　in　preparing　him　for　the　field；　and　when　he　is

in　it　the　chance　of　plunder　is　the　only　pay　which　he　either

expects　or　requires。

　　　　　An　army　of　hunters　can　seldom　exceed　two　or　three　hundred

men。　The　precarious　subsistence　which　the　chase　affords　could

seldom　allow　a　greater　number　to　keep　together　for　any

considerable　time。　An　army　of　shepherds；　on　the　contrary；　may

sometimes　amount　to　two　or　three　hundred　thousand。　As　long　as

nothing　stops　their　progress；　as　long　as　they　can　go　on　from　one

district；　of　which　they　have　consumed　the　forage；　to　another

which　is　yet　entire；　there　seems　to　be　scarce　any　limit　to　the

number　who　can　march　on　together。　A　nation　of　hunters　can　never

be　formidable　to　the　civilised　nations　in　their　neighbourhood。　A

nation　of　shepherds　may。　Nothing　can　be　more　contemptible　than　an

Indian　war　in　North　America。　Nothing；　on　the　contrary；　can　be

more　dreadful　than　Tartar　invasion　has　frequently　been　in　Asia。

The　judgment　of　Thucydides；　that　both　Europe　and　Asia　could　not

resist　the　Scythians　united；　has　been　verified　by　the　experience

of　all　ages。　The　inhabitants　of　the　extensive　but　defenceless

plains　of　Scythia　or　Tartary　have　been　frequently　united　under

the　dominion　of　the　chief　of　some　conquering　horde　or　clan；　and

the　havoc　and　devastation　of　Asia　have　always　signalized　their

union。　The　inhabitants　of　the　inhospitable　deserts　of　Arabia；　the

other　great　nation　of　shepherds；　have　never　been　united　but　once；

under　Mahomet　and　his　immediate　successors。　Their　union；　which

was　more　the　effect　of　religious　enthusiasm　than　of　conquest；　was

signalized　in　the　same　manner。　If　the　hunting　nations　of　America

should　ever　become　shepherds；　their　neighbourhood　would　be　much

more　dangerous　to　the　European　colonies　than　it　is　at　present。

　　　　　In　a　yet　more　advanced　state　of　society；　among　those　nations

of　husbandmen　who　have　little　foreign　commerce；　and　no　other

manufactures　but　those　coarse　and　household　ones　which　almost

every　private　family　prepares　for　its　own　use；　every　man；　in　the

same　manner；　either　is　a　warrior　or　easily　becomes　such。　They　who

live　by　agriculture　generally　pass　the　whole　day　in　the　open　air；

exposed　to　all　the　inclemencies　of　the　seasons。　The　hardiness　of

their　ordinary　life　prepares　them　for　the　fatigues　of　war；　to

some　of　which　their　necessary　occupations　bear　a　great　analogy。

The　necessary　occupation　of　a　ditcher　prepares　him　to　work　in　the

trenches；　and　to　fortify　a　camp　as　well　as　to　enclose　a　field。

The　ordinary　pastimes　of　such　husbandmen　are　the　same　as　those　of

shepherds；　and　are　in　the　same　manner　the　images　of　war。　But　as

husbandmen　have　less　leisure　than　shepherds；　they　are　not　so

frequently　employed　in　those　pastimes。　They　are　soldiers；　but

soldiers　not　quite　so　much　masters　of　their　exercise。　Such　as

they　are；　however；　it　seldom　costs　the　sovereign　or　commonwealth

any　expense　to　prepare　them　for　the　field。

　　　　　Agriculture；　even　in　its　rudest　and　lowest　state；　supposes　a

settlement：　some　sort　of　fixed　habitation　which　cannot　be

abandoned　without　great　loss。　When　a　nation　of　mere　husbandmen；

therefore；　goes　to　war；　the　whole　people　cannot　take　the　field

together。　The　old　men；　the　women　and　children；　at　least；　must

remain　at　home　to　take　care　of　the　habitation。　All　the　men　of　the

military　age；　however；　may　take　the　field；　and；　in　small　nations

of　this　kind；　have　frequently　done　so。　In　every　nation　the　men　of

the　military　age　are　supposed　to　amount　to　about　a　fourth　or　a

fifth　part　of　the　whole　body　of　the　people。　If　the　campaign；

should　begin　after　seed…time；　and　end　before　harvest；　both　the

husbandman　and　his　principal　labourers　can　be　spared　from　the

farm　without　much　loss。　He　trusts　that　the　work　which　must　be

done　in　the　meantime　can　be　well　enough　executed　by　the　old　men；

the　women；　and　the　children。　He　is　not　unwilling；　therefore；　to

serve　without　pay　during　a　short　campaign；　and　it　frequently

costs　the　sovereign　or　commonwealth　as　little　to　maintain　him　in

the　field　as　to　prepare　him　for　it。　The　citizens　of　all　the

different　states　of　ancient　Greece　seem　to　have　served　in　this

manner　till　after　the　second　Persian　war；　and　the　people　of

Peloponnesus　till　after　the　Peloponnesian　war。　The

Peloponnesians；　Thucydides　observes；　generally　left　the　field　in

the　summer；　and　returned　home　to　reap　the　harvest。　The　Roman

people　under　their　kings；　and　during　the　first　ages　of　the

republic；　served　in　the　same　manner。　It　was　not　till　the　siege　of

Veii　that　they　who　stayed　at　home　began　to　contribute　something

towards　maintaining　those　who　went　to　war。　In　the　European

monarchies；　which　were　founded　upon　the　ruins　of　the　Roman

empire；　both　before　and　for　some　time　after　the　establishment　of

what　is　properly　called　the　feudal　law；　the　great　lords；　with　all

their　immediate　dependents；　used　to　serve　the　crown　at　their　own

expense。　In　the　field；　in　the　same　manner　as　at　home；　they

maintained　themselves　by　their　own　revenue；　and　not　by　any

stipend　or　pay　which　they　received　from　the　king　upon　that

particular　occasion。

　　　　　In　a　more　advanced　state　of　society；　two　different　causes

contribute　to　render　it　altogether　impossible　that　they　who　take

the　field　should　maintain　themselves　at　their　own　expense。　Those

two　causes　are；　the　progress　of　manufactures；　and　the　improvement

in　the　art　of　war。

　　　　　Though　a　husbandman　should　be　employed　in　an　expedition；

provided　it　begins　after　seed…time　and　ends　before　harvest；　the

interruption　of　his　business　will　not　always　occasion　any

considerable　diminution　of　his　revenue。　Without　the　intervention

of　his　labour；　nature　does　herself　the　greater　part　of　the　work

which　remains　to　be　done。　But　the　moment　that　an　artificer；　a

smith；　a　carpenter；　or　a　weaver；　for　example；　quits　his

workhouse；　the　sole　source　of　his　revenue　is　completely　dried　up。

Nature　does　nothing　for　him；　he　does　all　for　himself。　When　he

takes　the　field；　therefore；　in　defence　of　the　public；　as　he　has

no　revenue　to　maintain　himself；　he　must　necessarily　be　maintained

by　the　public。　But　in　a　country　of　which　a　great　part　of　the

inhabitants　are　artificers　and　manufacturers；　a　great　part　of　the

people　who　go　to　war　must　be　drawn　from　those　classes；　and　must

therefore　be　maintained　by　the　public　as　long　as　they　are

employed　in　its　service。

　　　　　When　the　art　of　war；　too；　has　gradually　grown　up　to　be　a

very　intricate　and　complicated　science；　when　the　event　of　war

ceases　to　be　determined；　as　in　the　first　ages　of　society；　by　a

single　irregular　skirmish　or　battle；　but　when　the　contest　is

generally　spun　out　through　several　different　campaigns；　each　of

which　lasts　during　the　greater　part　of　the　year；　it　becomes

universally　necessary　that　the　public　should　maintain　those　who

serve　the　public　in　war；　at　least　while　they　are　employed　in　that

service。　Whatever　in　time　of　peace　might　be　the　ordinary

occupation　of　those　who　go　to　war；　so　very　tedious　and　expensive

a　service　would　otherwise　be　far　too　heavy　a　burden　upon　them。

After　the　second　Persian　war；　accordingly；　the　armies　of　Athens

seem　to　have　been　generally　composed　of　mercenary　troops；

consisting；　in