history of philosophy-第66章

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visible　type　of　His　wisdom；　as　our　weak　mind　is　the　image　of　His　intelligence。”　But　this　First
Cause；　God；　is　according　to　Robinet　a　creative　God；　He　has　brought　Nature　into　existence；　so
that　for　him　the　only　possible　knowledge　is　that　of　Nature。　“There　is　only　One　Cause。　The　eternal
Cause；　who　so　to　speak　had　sown　（engrainé）　events　one　in　the　other；　in　order　that　they　might
without　fail　follow　one　upon　another　as　He　chose；　in　the　beginning　set　in　motion　the　endless　chain
of　things。　Through　this　permanent　impression　the　Universe　goes　on　living；　moving　and　perpetuating
itself。　From　the　unity　of　cause　there　follows　the　unity　of　activity；　for　even　it　does　not　appear　as
something　to　be　more　or　less　admitted。　By　virtue　of　this　single　act　all　things　come　to　pass。　Since
man　has　made　Nature　his　study；　he　has　found　no　isolated　phenomenon；　and　no　independent　truth；
because　there　are　not　and　cannot　be　such。　The　whole　sustains　itself　through　the　mutual
correspondence　of　its　parts。”（5）　The　activity　of　Nature　is　one；　as　God　is　One。

This　activity；　more　particularly　regarded；　signifies　that　germs　unfold　themselves　in　everything：
everywhere　there　are　organic　Beings　which　produce　themselves；　nothing　is　isolated；　everything　is
combined　and　connected　and　in　harmony。　Robinet　here　goes　through　the　plants；　the　animals；　and
also　the　metals；　the　elements；　air；　fire；　water；　&c。；　and　seeks　from　them　to　demonstrate　the
existence　of　the　germ　in　whatever　has　life；　and　also　how　metals　are　organised　in　themselves。　“The
example　of　the　polypus　is　convincing　as　to　the　animal　nature　（animalité）　of　the　smallest　portions　of
organised　matter；　for　the　polypus　is　a　group　of　associated　polypi；　each　of　which　is　as　much　a　true
polypus　as　the　first。　It　stands　proved　that　from　the　same　point　of　view　the　living　consists　only　of　the
living；　the　animals　of　minute　animals；　every　animal　in　particular　of　minute　animals　of　the　same　kind；
a　dog　of　dog…germs；　man　of　human　germs。”　In　proof　of　this　Robinet　states　in　a　“Recapitulation”
that　“animal　sperm　swarms　with　spermatic　animalcules。”　Since　he　then　connects　every
propagation　properly　so…called　with　the　co…operation　of　both　sexes；　he　alleges　that　every
individual　is　inwardly　or　also　in　the　external　organs　a　hermaphrodite。　Of　the　minerals　he　says：　“Are
we　not　compelled　to　regard　as　organic　bodies　all　those　in　which　we　meet　with　an　inward　structure
such　as　this？　It　presupposes　throughout　a　seed；　seed…granules；　germs；　of　which　they　are　the
development。”　In　the　same　way　the　air　must　have　its　germ；　which　does　not　come　to　reality　until　it
is　nourished　by　water；　fire；　&c。　“The　air；　as　principle；　is　only　the　germ　of　the　air；　as　it　impregnates
or　saturates　itself　in　varying　degrees　with　water　and　fire；　it　will　gradually　pass　through　different
stages　of　growth：　it　will　become　first　embryo；　then　perfect　air。”（6）　Robinet　gives　the　name　of　germ
to　the　simple　form　in　itself；　the　substantial　form；　the　Notion。　Although　he　seeks　to　prove　this　too
much　from　the　sensuous　side；　he　yet　proceeds　from　principles　in　themselves　concrete；　from　the
form　in　itself。

He　speaks　also　of　the　evil　and　good　in　the　world。　The　result　of　his　observation　is　that　good　and
evil　balance　each　other；　this　equilibrium　constitutes　the　beauty　of　the　world。　In　order　to　refute　the
assertion　that　there　is　more　good　than　evil　in　the　world；　he　says　that　everything　to　which　we　reduce
the　good　consists　only　in　an　enjoyment；　a　pleasure；　a　satisfaction；　but　this　must　be　preceded　by　a
want；　a　lack；　a　pain；　the　removal　of　which　constitutes　satisfaction。（7）　This　is　not　only　a　correct
thought　empirically；　but　it　also　hints　at　the　deeper　idea　that　there　is　no　activity　except　through
contradiction。



3。　IDEA　OF　A　CONCRETE　UNIVERSAL　UNITY。

The　result　of　the　French　philosophy　is　that　it　insisted　on　maintaining　a　general　unity；　not　abstract；
but　concrete。　Thus　Robinet　now　propounded　the　theory　of　a　universal　organic　life；　and　a　uniform
mode　of　origination；　this　concrete　system　he　called　Nature；　over　which　God　was　set；　but　as　the
unknowable；　all　predicates　which　could　be　expressed　of　Him　contained　something　inapplicable。
We　must　admit　that　grand　conceptions　of　concrete　unity　are　to　be　found　here；　as　opposed　to　the
abstract　metaphysical　determinations　of　the　understanding；　e。g。；　the　fruitfulness　of　Nature。　But；　on
the　other　hand；　the　point　of　most　importance　with　these　philosophers　is　that　what　is　to　be　accepted
as　valid　must　have　presence；　and　that　man　in　all　knowledge　must　be　himself　the　knower；　for；　as　we
may　see；　those　philosophers　made　war　on　all　external　authority　of　state　and　church；　and　in
particular　on　abstract　thought　which　has　no　present　meaning　in　us。　Two　determinations　found　in　all
philosophy　are　the　concretion　of　the　Idea　and　the　presence　of　the　spirit　in　the　same；　my　content
must　at　the　same　time　be　something　concrete；　present。　This　concrete　was　termed　Reason；　and　for
it　the　more　noble　of　those　men　contended　with　the　greatest　enthusiasm　and　warmth。　Thought　was
raised　like　a　standard　among　the　nations；　liberty　of　conviction　and　of　conscience　in　me。　They　said
to　mankind；　“In　this　sign　thou　shalt　conquer；”　for　they　had　before　their　eyes　what　had　been　done
in　the　name　of　the　cross　alone；　what　had　been　made　a　matter　of　faith　and　law　and　religion　—　they
saw　how　the　sign　of　the　cross　had　been　degraded。　For　in　the　sign　of　the　cross　lying　and　deceit　had
been　victorious；　under　this　seal　institutions　had　become　fossilised；　and　had　sunk　into　all　manner　of
degradation；　so　that　this　sign　came　to　be　represented　as　the　epitome　and　root　of　all　evil。　Thus　in
another　form　they　completed　the　Reformation　that　Luther　began。　This　concrete　had　manifold
forms；　social　instincts　in　the　practical　sphere；　laws　of　nature　in　the　theoretical。　There　is　present　the
absolute　impulse　to　find　a　compass　immanent　in　themselves；　i。e。　in　the　human　mind。　For　the　human
mind　it　is　imperative　to　have　a　fixed　point　such　as　this；　if；　indeed；　it　is　to　be　within　itself；　if　it　is　to　be
free　in　its　own　world　at　least。　But　this　striving　after　really　present　vitality　took　forms　which　as
by…paths　were　themselves　one…sided。　In　this　striving　after　unity；　which　was；　however；　concrete
unity；　the　further　varieties　of　the　content　likewise　lie。

On　the　theoretic　side　of　their　philosophy；　therefore；　the　French　proceeded　to　materialism　or
naturalism；　because　the　requirements　of　the　understanding；　as　abstract　thought；　which　from　a　firmly
fixed　principle　allows　the　most　monstrous　consequences　to　be　drawn；　drove　them　to　set　up　one
principle　as　ultimate；　and　that　a　principle　which　had　at　the　same　time　to　be　present　and　to　lie　quite
close　to　experience。　Hence　they　accept　sensation　and　matter　as　the　only　truth；　to　which　must　be
reduced　all　thought；　all　morality；　as　a　mere　modification　of　sensation。　The　unities　which　the　French
propounded　were　in　this　way　one…sided。

a。　OPPOSITION　OF　SENSATION　AND　THOUGHT。

To　this　one…sidedness　belongs　the　opposition　between　sentir　and　penser；　or　else；　if　you　like；　their
identity；　making　the　latter　only　a　result　of　the　former；　there　is　not；　however；　any　speculative
reconciliation　of　this　opposition　in　God；　such　as　we　find　in　Spinoza　and　Malebranche。　This
reduction　of　all　thought　to　sensation；　which　in　certain　respects　took　place　with　Locke；　becomes　a
widely　extended　theory。　Robinet　（De　la　Nature；　T。　I。　P。　IV。　chap。　iii。　pp。　257…259）　lights　also　on
this　opposition；　beyond　which　he　does　not　get；　that　mind　and　body　are　not　separate；　but　that　the
manner　in　which　they　are　united　is　inexplicable。　The　Système　de　la　Nature　（T。　I。　chap。　x。　p。　177）
is　marked　by　an　especially　plain　reduction　of　thought　to　sensation。　The　leading　thought　is　this：
“Abstract　thoughts　are　only　modes　in　which　our　inmost　organ　views　its　own　modifications。　The
words　goodness；　beauty；　order；　intelligence；　virtue；　&c。；　have　no　meaning　for　us　if　we　do　not　refer
and　apply　them　to　objects　which　our　senses　have　shown　to　be　capable　of　these　qualities；　or　to
modes　of　being　and　acting　which　are　known　to　us。”　Thus　even　psychology　passed　into
materialism；　as　for　instance　we　may　find　in　La　Mettrie's　work　L'homme　Machine：　All　thought　and
all　conception　have　meaning　only　if　they　are　apprehended　as　material；　matter　alone　exists。

b。　MONTESQUIEU。

Other　great　writers　have　opposed　to　the　above　the　feeling　in　the　breast；　the　instinct　of
self…preservation；　benevolent　dispositions　towards　others；　the　impulse　to　fellowship；　which　last
Puffendorf　also　made　the　foundation　of　his　system　of　law　（supra；　p。　321）。　From　this　point　of　view
much　that　is　excellent　has　been　said。　Thus　Montesquieu；　in　his　charming　book；　L'Esprit　des　Lois；
of　which　Voltaire　said　it　was　an　esprit　sur　les　lois；　regarded　the　nations　from　this　important　point
of　view；　that　their　constitution；　their　religion；　in　short；　everything　that　is　to　be　found　in　a　state；
constitutes　a　totality。

c。　HELVETIUS。

This　reduction　of　thought　to　feeling　in　the　case　of　Helvetius　takes　the　form　that　if　in　man　as　a　moral
being　a　single　principle　is　sought；　this　ought　to　be　called　self…love；　and　he　endeavoured　to
demonstrate　by　ingenious　analysis　that　whatever　we　term　virtue；　all　activity　and　law　and　right；　has
as　its　foundation　nothing　but　self…love　or　selfishness；　and　is　resolvable　thereinto。（8）　This　principle　is
one…sided；　although　the　“I　myself”　is　an　essential　moment。　What　I　will；　the　noblest；　the　holiest；　is
my　aim；　I　must　take　part　in　it；　I　must　agree　to　it；　I　must　approve　of　it。　With　all　self…sacrifice　there　is
always　conjoined　some　satisfaction；　some　finding　of　self；　this　element　of　self；　subjective　liberty；
must　always　be　present。　If　this　is　taken　in　a　one…sided　sense；　there　may　be　consequences　drawn
from　it　which　overthrow　all　that　is　sacred；　but　it　is　found　in　equal　degree　in　a　morality　as　noble　as
any　possibly　can　be。

d。　ROUSSEAU。

In　connection　with　the　practical　side　of　things　this　particular　must　also　be　noted；　that　when　the
feeling　of　right；　the　concrete　practical　mind；　and；　speaking　generally；　humanity　and　happiness　were
made　the　principle；　this　principle；　universally　conceived；　had　certainly　the　form　of　thought；　but　in
the　case　of　such　concrete　content　derived　from　our　impulse　or　inward　intuition；　even　though　that
content　were　religious；　the　thought　itself　was　not　the　content。　But　now　this　further　phase　appeared；
that　pure　thought　was　set　up　as　the　principle　and　content；　even　if　again　there　was　lacking　to　this
content　the　true　consciousness　of　its　peculiar　form　for　it　was　not　recognised　that　this　principle　was
thought。　We　see　it　emerge　in　the　sphere　of　will；　of　the　practical；　of　the　just；　and　so　apprehended
that　the　inner…most　principle　of　man；　his　unity　with　himself；　is　set　forth　as　fundamental　and　brought
into　consciousness；　so　that　man　in　himself　acquired　an　infinite　strength。　It　is　this　that　Rousseau　from
one　point　of　view　said　about　the　state。　He　investigated　its　absolute　justification；　and　inquired　as　to
its　foundation。　The　right　of　ruling　and　associating；　of　the　relation　of　order；　of　governing　and　being
governed；　he　apprehends　from　his　own　point　of　view；　so　that　it　is　made　to　rest　historically　on
power；　compulsion；　conquest；　private　property；　&c。（9）

Rouss