history of philosophy-第65章

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language　of　plain　common…sense；　and　they　did　not　wage　war　on　what　we　call　religion；　that；　was
left　quite　unharmed；　and　its　claims　were　urged　with　words　of　choicest　eloquence。　Those　who
enforced　these　views　were　therefore　agents　of　destruction　against　that　alone　which　was　in　itself
already　destroyed。　We　place　it　to　our　credit　when　we　reproach　the　French　for　their　attacks　upon
religion　and　on　the　state。　We　must　represent　to　ourselves　the　horrible　state　of　society；　the　misery
and　degradation　in　France；　in　order　to　appreciate　the　services　that　these　writers　rendered。
Hypocrisy　and　cant；　imbecility　of　mind　and　the　tyranny　which　sees　itself　robbed　of　its　prey；　may
say　that　attacks　were　made　on　religion；　on　the　state；　and　on　manners。　But　what　a　religion！　Not　the
religion　that　Luther　purified；　but　the　most　wretched　superstition；　priestly　domination；　stupidity；
degradation　of　mind；　and　more　especially　the　squandering　of　riches　and　the　revelling　in　temporal
possessions　in　the　midst　of　public　misery。　And　what　a　state！　The　blindest　tyranny　of　ministers　and
their　mistresses；　wives　and　chamberlains　so　that　a　vast　army　of　petty　tyrants　and　idlers　looked
upon　it　as　a　right　divinely　given　them　to　plunder　the　revenues　of　the　state　and　lay　hands　upon　the
product　of　the　nation's　sweat。　The　shamelessness；　the　dishonesty　were　past　belief；　and　morals
were　simply　in　keeping　with　the　corruptness　of　the　institutions。　We　see　the　law　defied　by
individuals　in　respect　to　civil　and　political　life；　we　see　it　likewise　set　at　nought　in　respect　to
conscience　and　thought。

In　regard　to　practical　politics；　the　writers　in　question　never　even　thought　of　a　revolution；　but
desired　and　demanded　reforms　alone；　and　that　these　should　be　subjective　mainly；　they　called　on
the　Government　to　sweep　away　abuses；　and　appoint　honourable　men　as　ministers。　The　positive
recommendations　made　by　them　as　to　the　course　to　be　pursued　were；　for　example；　that　the　royal
children　should　receive　a　good　upbringing；　that　princes　should　be　of　frugal　habits；　&c。　The　French
Revolution　was　forced　on　by　the　stiff…necked　obstinacy　of　prejudices；　by　haughtiness；　utter　want
of　thought；　and　avarice。　The　philosophers　of　whom　we　are　speaking　were　able　to　give　only　a
general　idea　of　what　ought　to　be　done；　they　could　not　indicate　the　mode　in　which　the　reforms　were
to　be　carried　out。　It　was　the　Government's　business　to　make　arrangements　and　carry　out　reforms
in　concrete　shape；　but　it　did　not　perceive　this。　What　the　philosophers　brought　forward　and
maintained　as　a　remedy　for　this　horrible　state　of　disorder　was；　speaking　generally；　that　men　should
no　longer　be　in　the　position　of　laymen；　either　with　regard　to　religion　or　to　law；　so　that　in　religious
matters　there　should　not　be　a　hierarchy；　a　limited　and　selected　number　of　priests；　and　in　the　same
way　that　there　should　not　be　in　legal　matters　an　exclusive　caste　and　society　（not　even　a　class　of
professional　lawyers）；　in　whom　should　reside；　and　to　whom　should　be　restricted；　the　knowledge　of
what　is　eternal；　divine；　true；　and　right；　and　by　whom　other　men　should　be　commanded　and
directed；　but　that　human　reason　should　have　the　right　of　giving　its　assent　and　its　opinion。　To　treat
barbarians　as　laymen　is　quite　as　it　should　be　—　barbarians　are　nothing　but　laymen；　but　to　treat
thinking　men　as　laymen　is　very　hard。　This　great　claim　made　by　man　to　subjective　freedom；
perception　and　conviction；　the　philosophers　in　question　contended　for　heroically　and　with　splendid
genius；　with　warmth　and　fire；　with　spirit　and　courage；　maintaining　that　a　man's　own　self；　the　human
spirit；　is　the　source　from　which　is　derived　all　that　is　to　be　respected　by　him。　There　thus　manifests
itself　in　them　the　fanaticism　of　abstract　thought。　We　Germans　were　passive　at　first　with　regard　to
the　existing　state　of　affairs；　we　endured　it；　in　the　second　place；　when　that　state　of　affairs　was
overthrown；　we　were　just　as　passive：　it　was　overthrown　by　the　efforts　of　others；　we　let　it　be　taken
away　from　us；　we　suffered　it　all　to　happen。

In　Germany；　Frederick　II。　allied　himself　with　this　culture；　a　rare　example　in　those　days。　French
court　manners；　operas；　gardens；　dresses；　were　widely　adopted　in　Germany；　but　not　French
philosophy；　yet　in　the　form　of　wit　and　jest　much　of　it　found　its　way　into　this　upper　world；　and　much
that　was　evil　and　barbarous　was　driven　away。　Frederick　II。；　without　having　been　brought　up　on
melancholy　psalms；　without　having　had　to　learn　one　or　two　of　them　every　day　by　heart；　without　the
barbarous　metaphysics　and　logic　of　Wolff　（for　what　did　he　find　to　admire　in　Germany　except
Gellert？）；　was　well　acquainted　with　the　great；　although　formal　and　abstract　principles　of　religion
and　the　state；　and　governed　in　accordance　therewith；　as　far　as　circumstances　allowed。　Nothing
else　was　at　that　time　required　in　his　nation；　one　cannot　ask　that　he　should　have　reformed　and
revolutionised　it；　since　not　a　single　person　yet　demanded　representative　government　and　the
publicity　of　courts　of　justice。　He　introduced　what　there　was　need　of；　religious　tolerance；　legislation；
improvements　in　the　administration　of　justice；　economy　in　the　revenues　of　state；　of　the　wretched
German　law　there　remained　no　longer　in　his　states　even　the　merest　phantom。　He　showed　what　was
the　object　and　purpose　of　the　state；　and　at　the　same　time　cast　down　all　privileges；　the　private　rights
which　pertained　to　Germans；　and　arbitrary　statute　laws。　It　is　foolish　when　cant　and　German
pseudo…patriotism　pounce　down　upon　him　now；　and　try　to　disparage　the　greatness　of　a　man
whose　influence　was　so　enormous；　and　would　even　detract　from　his　fame　by　a　charge　of　vanity
and　wickedness。　What　German　patriotism　aims　at　should　be　reasonable。



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　2。　THE　POSITIVE　ASPECT。

The　affirmative　content　of　this　philosophy　certainly　does　not　satisfy　the　requirements　of　profundity。
A　leading　characteristic　of　its　teaching；　which　is　found　also　with　the　Scottish　philosophers　and　with
ourselves；　is　the　assumption　of　primitive　feelings　of　justice　which　man　has　in　himself；　as　for　example
benevolence　and　social　instincts　which　should　be　cultivated。　The　positive　source　of　knowledge　and
of　justice　is　placed　in　human　reason　and　the　common　consciousness　of　mankind；　in　the　healthy
human　reason；　and　not　in　the　form　of　the　Notion。　It　is　certainly　wonderful　to　find　truths　expressed
in　the　form　of　universal　thoughts；　respecting　which　it　is　of　infinite　importance　that　they　should　be
assumptions　present　in　the　human　mind：　that　man　has　in　his　heart　the　feeling　of　right；　of　love　to　his
fellow…creatures：　that　religion　and　faith　are　not　matters　of　compulsion；　that　merit；　talent；　virtue　are
the　true　nobility；　&c。　An　important　question；　especially　among　the　Germans；　was　what　is　the　end
and　character　of　man；　by　which　was　meant　the　nature　of　his　mind　and　spirit；　and　certainly；　as　far　as
the　spiritual　is　concerned；　it　is　to　this　point　that　we　must　return。　But　in　order　to　find　the　nature　of
spirit；　to　discover　what　this　determination　is；　a　return　was　made　to　perception；　observation；
experience；　to　the　existence　of　certain　impulses。　These　are　certainly　determinations　in　ourselves；
but　we　have　not　known　them　in　their　necessity。　Such　an　impulse　is　besides　taken　as　natural；　and
thus　it　is　here　indeterminate　in　itself；　it　has　its　limitation　only　as　a　moment　of　the　whole。　In　regard　to
knowledge；　very　abstract　thoughts　are　to　be　found　—　though　of　a　truth　they　are　quite　as　good　as
ours；　and　more　ingenious　—　which　according　to　their　content　ought　to　be　concrete；　and　also　were
so。　But　so　superficially　were　they　comprehended　that　they　soon　showed　themselves　far　from
sufficient　for　what　had　to　be　derived　from　them。　They　said；　for　instance；　that　Nature　is　a　whole；
that　all　is　determined　by　laws；　through　a　combination　of　different　movements；　through　a　chain　of
causes　and　effects；　and　so　on；　the　various　properties；　materials；　connections　of　things　bring
everything　to　pass。　Those　are　general　phrases；　with　which　one　can　fill　whole　books。

a。　SYSTèME　DE　LA　NATURE。

To　this　philosophy　belongs　the　Système　de　la　Nature；　the　leading　work　on　the　subject；　written　in
Paris　by　a　German；　Baron　von　Hollbach；　who　was　the　central　figure　of　all　those　philosophers。
Montesquieu；　d'Alembert；　Rousseau；　were　for　a　time　in　his　circle；　however　much　these　men　were
moved　to　indignation　at　the　existing　state　of　things；　they　were　yet　in　other　respects　very　different
from　one　another。　The　Système　de　la　Nature　may　very　easily　be　found　tiresome　to　read；　because
it　treats　discursively　of　general　conceptions；　which　are　often　repeated；　it　is　not　a　French　book；　for
vivacity　is　lacking　and　the　mode　of　presentation　is　dull。

The　great　Whole　of　Nature　（le　grand　tout　de　la　nature）　is　the　ultimate：　“The　universe　displays
nothing　but　an　immense　collection　of　matter　and　motion”　（as　with　Descartes）；　“an　unbroken　chain
of　causes　and　effects；　of　which　causes　some　directly　affect　our　senses；　while　others　are　unknown
to　us；　because　their　effects；　which　we　perceive；　are　too　remote　from　their　causes。　The　different
qualities　of　these　materials；　their　manifold　connections；　and　the　effects　which　result　therefrom；
constitute　essences　for　us。　From　the　diversity　of　these　essences　arise　the　different　orders；　species；
systems；　under　which　things　fall；　and　whose　sum　total；　the　great　whole；　is　what　we　call　Nature。”（2）
It　is　like　what　Aristotle　（vide　Vol。　I。　p。　241）　says　of　Xenophanes；　that　he　gazed　into　the　blue；　i。e。
into　Being。　According　to　Hollbach　all　is　movement；　matter　moves　itself：　beer　ferments；　the　soul　is
moved　by　its　passions。（3）　“The　manifold　variety　of　natural　phenomena；　and　their　incessant　rise　and
disappearance；　have　their　sole　ground　in　the　variety　of　motions　and　of　their　material。”　Through
different　combinations　and　modifications；　through　a　different　arrangement；　another　thing　is
originated。　“Material　substances　have　either　a　tendency　to　combine　with　one　another；　or　else　they
are　incapable　of　so　combining。　Upon　this　are　based　by　physical　scientists　the　forces　of　attraction
and　repulsion；　sympathy　and　antipathy；　affinity　and　relation；　and　the　moralists　base　thereon　hatred
and　love；　friendship　and　enmity。”　Spirit；　the　incorporeal；　contradicts　or　opposes　itself　to　motion；
to　a　change　of　the　relations　of　a　body　in　space。（4）

b。　ROBINET。

Another　work　of　importance　is　the　still　more　“dangerous”　treatise；　De　la　Nature；　by　Robinet。　In
it　there　reigns　quite　a　different　and　a　deeper　spirit；　one　is　frequently　struck　by　the　depth　of
earnestness　which　the　writer　displays。　He　begins　thus：　“There　is　a　God；　i。e。；　a　cause　of　the
phenomena　of　that　Whole　which　we　call　Nature。　Who　is　God？　We　know　not；　and　we　are　so
constituted　that　we　can　never　know　in　what　order　of　things　we　have　been　placed。　We　cannot
know　God　perfectly；　because　the　means　of　doing　so　will　always　be　lacking　to　us。　We　too　might
write　over　the　doors　of　our　temples　the　words　which　were　to　be　read　upon　the　altar　which　the
Areopagite　raised；　'To　the　unknown　God。'”　The　very　same　thing　is　said　nowadays：　there　can　be
no　transition　from　the　finite　to　the　infinite。　“The　order　which　reigns　in　the　universe　is　just　as　little　the
visible　type　of　His　wisdom；　as　our　weak　mind　is　the