history of philosophy-第58章
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required unity of that which before fell asunder; and God has the special privilege of having laid on
Him the burden of what cannot be comprehended。 The word of God is thus the makeshift which
leads to a unity which itself is only hypothetical; for the process of the many out of this unity is not
demonstrated。 God plays therefore in the later philosophy a far greater part than in the early;
because now the comprehension of the absolute opposition of thought and Being is the chief
demand。 With Leibnitz the extent to which thoughts advance is the extent of the universe; where
comprehension ceases; the universe ceases; and God begins: so that later it was even maintained
that to be comprehended was derogatory to God; because he was thus degraded into finitude。 In
that procedure a beginning is made from the determinate; this and that are stated to be necessary;
but since in the next place the unity of these moments is not comprehended; it is transferred to
God。 God is therefore; as it were; the waste channel into which all contradictions flow: Leibnitz's
Théodicée is just a popular summing up such as this。 There are; nevertheless; all manner of
evasions to be searched out — in the opposition of God's justice and mercy; that the one tempers
the other; how the fore…knowledge of God and human freedom are compatible — all manner of
syntheses which never come to the root of the matter nor show both sides to be moments。
These are the main moments of Leibnitz's philosophy。 It is a metaphysic which starts from a
narrow determination of the understanding; namely; from absolute multiplicity; so that connection
can only be grasped as continuity。 Thereby absolute unity is certainly set aside; but all the same it
is presupposed; and the association of individuals with one another is to be explained only in this
way; that it is God who determines the harmony in the changes of individuals。 This is an artificial
system; which is founded on a category of the understanding; that of the absoluteness of abstract
individuality。 What is of importance in Leibnitz lies in the maxims; in the principle of individuality
and the maxim of indistinguishability。
1。 La vie de Mr。 Leibnitz par Mr。 le Chevalier de Jaucourt (Essais de Théodicée; par Leibnitz;
Amsterdam; 1747; T。 I。); pp。 1…28; 45; 59…62; 66…74; 77…80; 87…92; 110…116; 148…151;
Brucker。 Hist。 crit。 phil。; T。 IV。 P。 II。 pp。 335…368; Leibnitzii Opera omnia (ed。 Dutens); T。 II。; P
I。 pp。 45; 46。
2。 Vie de Mr。 Leibnitz; pp。 134…143; Brucker。 Hist。 crit。 philos。 T。 IV。 P。 II。 pp。 385; 389;
Tennemann; vol。 xi。 pp。 181; 182。
3。 Leibnitzii Opera; T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 32…39。
4。 Ibidem; Principia philosophi?; pp。 20…31。
5。 cf。 Leibnitz: Essais de Théodicée; T。 I。 P。 I。 § 10; p。 86。
6。 Leibnitz: Principes de la nature et la grace; § 1; p。 32 (Recueil de diverses pièces par
Des…Maiseaux; T。 II。 p。 485); Principia philosophi?; § 1; 2; p。 20。
7。 Leibnitzii De ipsa natura sive de vi insita actionibusque creaturarum (Oper。 T。 II。 P。 II。); § 11;
p。 55; Principia philosophi?; § 3…6; 18; pp。 20…22; Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 2; p。
32。
8。 Leibnitzii Principa philosophi?; § 7; p。 21; Troisième éclaircissement du système de la
communication des substances (Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。); p。 73 (Recueil; T。 II; p。 402)。
9。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophi?; § 8; 9; p。 21; Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 128; 129; § 4; 5: Il n'y a
point deux individus indiscrenables。 Un gentilhomme d'esprit de mes amis; en parlant avec moi en
présence de Mad。 l'Electrice dans le jardin de Herrenhausen; crut qu'il trouverait bien deux
feuilles entièrement semblables。 Mad。 l'Electrice l'en défia; et il court longtemps en vain pour en
chercher。 Deux gouttes d'eau ou de lait regardées par le microscope se trouveront discernables。
C'est un argument contre les Atomes (Recueil; T。 I。 p。 50)。…Cf。 Hegel's Werke; Vol。 IV。 p。 45。
10。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophi?; § 10…16; pp。 21; 22; Principes de la nature et de la grace; §
2; p。 32。
11。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophi?; § 19…23; pp。 22; 23; Principes de la nature et de la grace; §
4; pp。 33; 34; Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain (?uvres philosophiques de Leibnitz par
Raspe); Bk。 II。 chap。 ix。 § 4; p。 90。
12。 Leibnitzii De amina brutorum (Op。 T。 II。 P。 I。); § 2…4; pp。 230; 231。
13。 Leibnitzii Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 214; 215; § 3; De ipsa natura sive de vi insita; § 11; p。 55;
Système nouveau de la nature et de la communication des substances (Op。 T。 II。 P。 I); pp。 50; 53。
14。 Leibnitzii Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 79; 121; 234…237; 280; 295; Nouveaux essais sur
l'entendement humain; Bk。 II。 chap。 xiii。 § 15; 17; pp。 106; 107。
15。 Leibnitz: Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain; Bk。 II。 chap。 xii。 § 7; pp。 102; 103;
chap。 xxi。 § 72; p。 170; chap。 xxiv。 § 1; p。 185。
16。 Leibnitzii Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 p。 39; Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain; Bk。 III。 chap。 vi。
§ 24; p。 278; § 39; p。 290。
17。 Leibnitzii Oper。 T。 II。 P。 II。 p。 60; Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain; Bk。 II。 chap。
xxiii。 § 23; p。 181。
18。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophim; § 65…71; p。 28; Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 3; 4;
pp。 32; 33。
19。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophim; § 29…31; p。 24; Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 5; p。
34; Essais de Th6odic6e; T。 I。 P。 1。 § 44; p。 115。
20。 Leibnitz : Priucipes de la nature et de la grace; § 7; p。 36。
21。 Leibnitz: Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 8; p。 35; Principia philosophi?; § 43…46; p。
25。
22。 Leibnitz: Essais de Théodicée; T。 I。 P。 I。 § 6…8; pp。 83…85; Principes de la nature et de la
grace; § 10; p。 36。
23。 Leibnitz: Essais de Théodicée; T。 I。 P。 I。 § 20; pp。 96; 97; § 32; 33; pp。 106; 107; T。 II。 P。
II。 § 153; pp。 57; 58; § 378; pp。 256; 257。
24。 Leibnitzii Causa Dei asserta per justitiam ejus (Essais de Théodicée; T。 II。); § 34…39; pp。
385; 386。
25。 Leibnitz: Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 3; p。 33; Premier éclaircissement du système
de la communication des substances; p。 70。
26。 Leibnitz: Second et troisième éclaircissemens du système de la communication des substances;
pp。 71…73。
27。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophi?; § 82; p。 30; Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 11; p。
36。
28。 Leibnitz: Système nouveau de la nature et de la communication des substances; pp。 54; 55。
29。 Leibnitzii Principia philosophi?; § 90; p。 31; Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 12; 13;
pp。 36; 37; § 15; pp。 37; 38。
30。 Leibnitzii Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 75; 76。
31。 Leibnitzii Principia philosoph。; § 58…62; p。 27; Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 pp。 46; 47。
32。 Leibnitz: Essais de Théodicée; T。 I。 P。 I。 § 9; pp。 85; 86。
33。 Leibnitz: Principes de la nature et de la grace; § 12; 13; pp。 36; 37; Oper。 T。 II。 P。 I。 p。 337。
34。 Leibnitz: Essais de Théodicée; T。 II。 P。 III。 § 291; pp。 184; 185; T。 I。 P。 I。 § 50; p。 119。
Section Two: Period of the Thinking Understanding
Chapter I。 — The Metaphysics of the Understanding
C 2。 WOLFF
The philosophy of Wolff is directly connected with that of Leibnitz; for really it is a pedantic
systematization of the latter; for which reason it is likewise called the Leibnitz…Wolffian system of
philosophy。 Wolff attained to great distinction in mathematics and made himself famous by his
philosophy as well; the latter was for long predominant in Germany。 In Wolff; as a teacher dealing
with the understanding; we find a systematic exposition of the philosophic element present in
human conceptions as a whole。 As regards his connection with German culture generally; great
and immortal praise is more especially due to him; before all others he may be termed the teacher
of the Germans。 We may indeed say that Wolff was the first to naturalize philosophy in Germany。
Tschirnhausen and Thomasius likewise participated in this honour; for the special reason that they
wrote upon Philosophy in the German language。 In regard to the matter of the philosophy of
Tschirnhausen and Thomasius we have not much to say; it is so…called healthy reason … there is in
it the superficial character and the empty universality always to be found where a beginning is
made with thought。 In this case the universality of thought satisfies us because every thing is
present there; just as it is present in a moral maxim which has; however; no determinate content in
its universality。 Wolff; then; was the first to make; not exactly Philosophy; but thoughts in the form
of thought; into a general possession; and he substituted this in Germany for mere talk originating
from feeling; from sensuous perception; and from the ordinary conception。 This is most important
from the point of view of culture; and yet it does not really concern us here; excepting in so far as
the content in this form of thought has caused itself to be recognized as Philosophy。 This
philosophy; as a philosophy of the understanding; became the ordinary culture of the day; in it;
determinate; intelligent thought is the fundamental principle; and it extends over the whole circle of
objects which fall within the region of knowledge。 Wolff defined the world of consciousness for
Germany; and for the world in general; in the same wide sense in which we may say that this was
done by Aristotle。 What distinguishes him from Aristotle is that in so doing the point of view that
he adopted was that of the understanding merely; while Aristotle treated the subject speculatively。
The philosophy of Wolff is hence no doubt built on foundations laid by Leibnitz; but yet in such a
manner that the speculative interest is quite eliminated from it。 The spiritual philosophy; substantial
in a higher sense; which we found emerging first in Boehme; though still in a peculiar and
barbarous form; has been quite lost sight of; and has disappeared without leaving any traces or
effects in Germany; his very language was forgotten。
The principal events in Christian Wolff's life are these: He was the son of a baker; and was born at
Breslau in 1679。 He first studied Theology and then Philosophy; and in 1707 he became Professor
of Mathematics and Philosophy at Halle。 Here the pietistic theologians; and more especially
Lange; treated him in the basest manner。 Piety did not trust this understanding; for piety; if it is
true; embodies a content which is speculative in nature; and which passes beyond the
understanding。 As his opponents could make no headway by their writings; they resorted to
intrigues。 They caused it to be conveyed to King Frederick William I。; the father of Frederick II。;
a rough man who took an interest in nothing but soldiers; that according to the determinism of
Wolff; free will was impossible; and that soldiers could not hence desert of their own free will; but
by a special disposition of God (pre…established harmony) a doctrine which; if disseminated
amongst the military; would be extremely dangerous。 The king; much enraged by this; immediately
issued a decree that within forty…eight hours Wolff should leave Halle and the Prussian States;
under penalty of the halter。 Wolff thus left Halle on the 23rd of November;