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the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及38嫗

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     ��11�А�E。 Boinet�此�Les doctrines medicules�察�leur evolution�察�Paris�察�1907�察�pp。 

85´86。 

       It   was   a   pupil   of   Corvisart�察  �Rene   Theophile   Laennec�察  �who   laid   the 

foundation      of   modern     clinical   medicine。    The    story   of  his  life  is  well 

known。 A Breton by birth�察�he had a hard�察�up´hill struggle as a young man 

a   struggle    of  which     we   have   only    recently   been    made    aware     by  the 

publication      of   a  charming      book    by    Professor    Rouxeau       of  Nantes 

;Laennec avant 1806。; Influenced by Corvisart�察�he began to combine the 

accurate study of cases in the wards with anatomical investigations in the 

dead´house。 Before Laennec�察�the examination of a patient had been largely 

by   sense   of   sight�察  �supplemented   by   that   of   touch�察  �as   in   estimating   the 

degree   of   fever�察  �or   the   character   of   the   pulse。 Auenbrugger's   ;Inventum 

novum; of percussion�察�recognized by Corvisart�察�extended the field�察�but the 

discovery  of   auscultation   by   Laennec�察  �and   the   publication   of   his   work 

;De     l'Auscultation      Mediate�察─    �1819��marked        an   era   in  the   study    of 

medicine。 The clinical recognition of individual diseases had made really 

very    little  progress�察   �with   the   stethoscope     begins    the   day   of   physical 

diagnosis。   The   clinical   pathology   of   the   heart�察  �lungs   and   abdomen   was 

revolutionized。       Laennec's     book    is  in  the  category    of   the  eight   or  ten 

greatest   contributions   to   the   science   of   medicine。��*�А  �His   description   of 

tuberculosis   is   perhaps   the   most   masterly   chapter   in   clinical   medicine。 

This   revolution   was   effected   by   a   simple   extension   of   the   Hippocratic 

method from the bed to the dead´house�察�and by correlating the signs and 

symptoms of a disease with its anatomical appearances。 

     ��*�А�John Forbes's translation of Auenbrugger and part of his translation 

of   Lacnnec   are   reprinted   in   Camac's   Epoch´making   Contributions�察  �etc。�察�

1909。Ed。 

       The   pupils   and   successors   of   CorvisartBayle�察  �Andral�察  �Bouillaud�察�

Chomel�察�Piorry�察�Bretonneau�察�Rayer�察�Cruveilhier and Trousseau brought a 

new spirit into the profession。 Everywhere the investigation of disease by 

clinical´pathological methods widened enormously the diagnostic powers 

of the physician。 By this method Richard Bright�察�in 1836�察�opened a new 

chapter     on   the   relation    of  disease    of   the  kidney     to  dropsy�察   �and    to 

albuminous urine。 It had already been shown by Blackwell and by Wells�察�



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the    celebrated     Charleston      ��S。C。��   physician�察    �in   1811�察   �that   the  urine 

contained   albumin   in   many   cases   of   dropsy�察  �but   it   was   not   until   Bright 

began a careful investigation of the bodies of patients who had presented 

these   symptoms�察  �that   he   discovered   the   association   of   various   forms   of 

disease of the kidney with anasarca and albuminous urine。 In no direction 

was     the  harvest    of   this  combined      study    more    abundant     than    in  the 

complicated and confused subject of fever。 The work of Louis and of his 

pupils�察�W。W。 Gerhard and others�察�revealed the distinction between typhus 

and typhoid fever�察�and so cleared up one of the most obscure problems in 

pathology。      By   Morgagni's      method     of  ;anatomical      thinking�察─   �Skoda    in 

Vienna�察�Schonlein in Berlin�察�Graves and Stokes in Dublin�察�Marshall Hall�察�

C。 J。 B。 Williams and many others introduced the new and exact methods 

of the French and created a new clinical medicine。 A very strong impetus 

was   given   by   the   researches   of   Virchow   on   cellular   pathology�察  �which 

removed the seats of disease from the tissues�察�as taught by Bichat�察�to the 

individual      elements�察    �the   cells。   The    introduction     of   the   use   of   the 

microscope in clinical work widened greatly our powers of diagnosis�察�and 

we     obtained    thereby     a  very    much     clearer   conception      of   the  actual 

processes of disease。 In another way�察�too�察�medicine was greatly helped by 

the   rise   of   experimental   pathology�察  �which   had   been   introduced   by   John 

Hunter�察    �was    carried   along    by   Magendie      and    others�察  �and   reached     its 

culmination in the epoch´making researches of Claude Bernard。 Not only 

were valuable studies made on the action of drugs�察�but also our knowledge 

of cardiac pathology was revolutionized by the work of Traube�察�Cohnheim 

and   others。   In   no   direction   did   the   experimental   method   effect   such   a 

revolution   as   in   our   knowledge   of   the   functions   of   the   brain。   Clinical 

neurology�察  �which   had   received   a   great   impetus   by   the   studies   of   Todd�察�

Romberg�察�Lockhart Clarke�察�Duchenne and Weir Mitchell�察�was completely 

revolutionized by the experimental work of Hitzig�察�Fritsch and Ferrier on 

the   localization   of   functions   in   the   brain。   Under   Charcot�察  �the   school   of 

French      neurologists     gave   great   accuracy     to   the  diagnosis     of  obscure 

affections   of   the   brain   and   spinal   cord�察  �and   the   combined   results   of   the 

new anatomical�察�physiological and experimental work have rendered clear 

and definite what was formerly the most obscure and complicated section 



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of internal medicine。 The end of the fifth decade of the century is marked 

by   a   discovery   of   supreme   importance。   Humphry   Davy   had   noted   the 

effects of nitrous oxide。 The exhilarating influence of sulphuric ether had 

been casually studied�察�and Long of Georgia had made patients inhale the 

vapor until anaesthetic and had performed operations upon them when in 

this   state�察  �but   it   was   not   until   October   16�察  �1846�察  �in   the   Massachusetts 

General   Hospital�察  �that   Morton�察  �in   a   public   operating   room�察  �rendered   a 

patient     insensible    with    ether   and   demonstrated       the   utility  of   surgical 

anaesthesia。   The   rival   claims   of   priority   no   longer   interest   us�察  �but   the 

occasion is one of the most memorable in the history of the race。 It is well 

that our colleagues celebrate Ether Day in Boston no more precious boon 

has ever been granted to suffering humanity。��*�А�

     ��*�А�Cf。 Osler�此�Proc。 Roy。 Soc。 Med。�察�XI�察�Sect。 Hist。 Med。�察�pp。 65´69�察�

1918�察     �or�察 �Annals      Med。    Hist。�察   �N。Y。�察  �I�察 �329´332。      Cf。   also    Morton's 

publications reprinted in Camac's book cited above。Ed。 

       In   1857�察  �a   young   man�察  �Louis   Pasteur�察  �sent   to   the   Lille   Scientific 

Society   a   paper   on   ;Lactic Acid   Fermentation;   and   in   December   of   the 

same   year   presented   to   the   Academy   of   Sciences   in   Paris   a   paper   on 

;Alcoholic   Fermentation; in   which   he   concluded   that   ;the   deduplication 

of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is correlative to a phenomenon of 

life。; A new era in medicine dates from those two publications。 The story 

of Pasteur's life should be read by every student。��*�А�It is one of the glories 

of   human   literature�察  �and�察  �as   a   record   of   achievement   and   of   nobility   of 

character�察�is almost without an equal。 

     ��*�А�Osler wrote a preface for the 1911 English edition of the Life by 

Vallery´Radot。Ed。 

       At the middle of the last century we did not know much more of the 

actual causes of the great scourges of the race�察�the plagues�察�the fevers and 

the   pestilences�察  �than   did   the   Greeks。   Here   comes   Pasteur's   great   work。 

Before him Egyptian darkness�察�with his advent a light that brightens more 

and more as the years give us ever fuller knowledge。 The facts that fevers 

were catching�察�that epidemics spread�察�that infection could remain attached 

to   articles   of   clothing�察  �etc。�察  �all   gave   support   to   the   view   that   the   actual 

cause was something alive�察�a contagium vivum。 It was really a very old 



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view�察�the germs of which may be found in the Fathers�察�but which was first 

clearly     expressedso     far   as   I  knowby      Fracastorius�察    �the   Veronese 

physician�察�in the sixteenth century�察 �who spoke of the seeds of contagion 

passing     from   one   person    to  another�撮�12�А    �and   he  first  drew    a  parallel 

between   the   processes   of   contagion   and   the   fermentation   of   wine。   This 

was more than one hundred years before Kircher�察�Leeuwenhoek and others 

began to use the microscope and to see animalcula�撮察�etc。�察�in water�察�and so 

give a basis for the ;infinitely little; view of the nature of disease germs。 

And it was a study of the processes of fermentation that led Pasteur to the 

sure ground on which we now stand。 

     ��12�А  �Varro�察  �in   De   Re   Rustica�察  �Bk。   I�察  �12   ��circa   40   B。C。���察  �speaks   of 

minute organisms which the eye cannot see and which enter the body and 

cause disease。 

       Out of these researches arose a famous battle which kept Pasteur hard 

at work for four or five yearsthe struggle over spontaneous generation。 It 

was an old warfare�察�but the microscope had revealed a new world�察�and the 

experiments on fermentation had lent great weight to the omne vivum ex 

ovo doctrine。 The famous Italians�察�Redi and Spallanzani�察�had led the way 

in their experiments�察�and the latter had reached the conclusion that there is 

no vegetable and no animal that has not its own germ。 But heterogenesis 

became      the  burning    question�察   �and   Pouchet     in  France�察   �and   Bastian   in 

England�察  �led   the   opposition   to   Pasteur。   The   many   famous   experiments 

carried   conviction   to   the   minds   of   scientific   men�察  �and   destroyed   forever 

the old belief in spontaneous generation。 All along�察�the analogy between 

disease and fermentation must have been in Pasteur's mind�察�and then came 

the suggestion�察 �What would be most desirable is to push those studies far 

enough to prepare the road for a serious research into the origin of various 

diseases。; If the changes in lactic�察�alcoholic and butyric fermentations are 

due   to   minute   living   organisms�察  �why  should   not the   same   tiny  creatures 

make the changes which occur in the body in the putrid and suppurative 

diseases�拭�With an accurate training as a 

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