the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及38嫗
梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈��梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈��梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何��
!!!!隆堋響頼��紗秘慕禰厮宴和肝写偬堋響��
��11�А�E。 Boinet�此�Les doctrines medicules�察�leur evolution�察�Paris�察�1907�察�pp。
85´86。
It was a pupil of Corvisart�察 �Rene Theophile Laennec�察 �who laid the
foundation of modern clinical medicine。 The story of his life is well
known。 A Breton by birth�察�he had a hard�察�up´hill struggle as a young man
a struggle of which we have only recently been made aware by the
publication of a charming book by Professor Rouxeau of Nantes
;Laennec avant 1806。; Influenced by Corvisart�察�he began to combine the
accurate study of cases in the wards with anatomical investigations in the
dead´house。 Before Laennec�察�the examination of a patient had been largely
by sense of sight�察 �supplemented by that of touch�察 �as in estimating the
degree of fever�察 �or the character of the pulse。 Auenbrugger's ;Inventum
novum; of percussion�察�recognized by Corvisart�察�extended the field�察�but the
discovery of auscultation by Laennec�察 �and the publication of his work
;De l'Auscultation Mediate�察─ �1819��marked an era in the study of
medicine。 The clinical recognition of individual diseases had made really
very little progress�察 �with the stethoscope begins the day of physical
diagnosis。 The clinical pathology of the heart�察 �lungs and abdomen was
revolutionized。 Laennec's book is in the category of the eight or ten
greatest contributions to the science of medicine。��*�А �His description of
tuberculosis is perhaps the most masterly chapter in clinical medicine。
This revolution was effected by a simple extension of the Hippocratic
method from the bed to the dead´house�察�and by correlating the signs and
symptoms of a disease with its anatomical appearances。
��*�А�John Forbes's translation of Auenbrugger and part of his translation
of Lacnnec are reprinted in Camac's Epoch´making Contributions�察 �etc。�察�
1909。Ed。
The pupils and successors of CorvisartBayle�察 �Andral�察 �Bouillaud�察�
Chomel�察�Piorry�察�Bretonneau�察�Rayer�察�Cruveilhier and Trousseau brought a
new spirit into the profession。 Everywhere the investigation of disease by
clinical´pathological methods widened enormously the diagnostic powers
of the physician。 By this method Richard Bright�察�in 1836�察�opened a new
chapter on the relation of disease of the kidney to dropsy�察 �and to
albuminous urine。 It had already been shown by Blackwell and by Wells�察�
148
´ Page 149´
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
the celebrated Charleston ��S。C。�� physician�察 �in 1811�察 �that the urine
contained albumin in many cases of dropsy�察 �but it was not until Bright
began a careful investigation of the bodies of patients who had presented
these symptoms�察 �that he discovered the association of various forms of
disease of the kidney with anasarca and albuminous urine。 In no direction
was the harvest of this combined study more abundant than in the
complicated and confused subject of fever。 The work of Louis and of his
pupils�察�W。W。 Gerhard and others�察�revealed the distinction between typhus
and typhoid fever�察�and so cleared up one of the most obscure problems in
pathology。 By Morgagni's method of ;anatomical thinking�察─ �Skoda in
Vienna�察�Schonlein in Berlin�察�Graves and Stokes in Dublin�察�Marshall Hall�察�
C。 J。 B。 Williams and many others introduced the new and exact methods
of the French and created a new clinical medicine。 A very strong impetus
was given by the researches of Virchow on cellular pathology�察 �which
removed the seats of disease from the tissues�察�as taught by Bichat�察�to the
individual elements�察 �the cells。 The introduction of the use of the
microscope in clinical work widened greatly our powers of diagnosis�察�and
we obtained thereby a very much clearer conception of the actual
processes of disease。 In another way�察�too�察�medicine was greatly helped by
the rise of experimental pathology�察 �which had been introduced by John
Hunter�察 �was carried along by Magendie and others�察 �and reached its
culmination in the epoch´making researches of Claude Bernard。 Not only
were valuable studies made on the action of drugs�察�but also our knowledge
of cardiac pathology was revolutionized by the work of Traube�察�Cohnheim
and others。 In no direction did the experimental method effect such a
revolution as in our knowledge of the functions of the brain。 Clinical
neurology�察 �which had received a great impetus by the studies of Todd�察�
Romberg�察�Lockhart Clarke�察�Duchenne and Weir Mitchell�察�was completely
revolutionized by the experimental work of Hitzig�察�Fritsch and Ferrier on
the localization of functions in the brain。 Under Charcot�察 �the school of
French neurologists gave great accuracy to the diagnosis of obscure
affections of the brain and spinal cord�察 �and the combined results of the
new anatomical�察�physiological and experimental work have rendered clear
and definite what was formerly the most obscure and complicated section
149
´ Page 150´
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
of internal medicine。 The end of the fifth decade of the century is marked
by a discovery of supreme importance。 Humphry Davy had noted the
effects of nitrous oxide。 The exhilarating influence of sulphuric ether had
been casually studied�察�and Long of Georgia had made patients inhale the
vapor until anaesthetic and had performed operations upon them when in
this state�察 �but it was not until October 16�察 �1846�察 �in the Massachusetts
General Hospital�察 �that Morton�察 �in a public operating room�察 �rendered a
patient insensible with ether and demonstrated the utility of surgical
anaesthesia。 The rival claims of priority no longer interest us�察 �but the
occasion is one of the most memorable in the history of the race。 It is well
that our colleagues celebrate Ether Day in Boston no more precious boon
has ever been granted to suffering humanity。��*�А�
��*�А�Cf。 Osler�此�Proc。 Roy。 Soc。 Med。�察�XI�察�Sect。 Hist。 Med。�察�pp。 65´69�察�
1918�察 �or�察 �Annals Med。 Hist。�察 �N。Y。�察 �I�察 �329´332。 Cf。 also Morton's
publications reprinted in Camac's book cited above。Ed。
In 1857�察 �a young man�察 �Louis Pasteur�察 �sent to the Lille Scientific
Society a paper on ;Lactic Acid Fermentation; and in December of the
same year presented to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a paper on
;Alcoholic Fermentation; in which he concluded that ;the deduplication
of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is correlative to a phenomenon of
life。; A new era in medicine dates from those two publications。 The story
of Pasteur's life should be read by every student。��*�А�It is one of the glories
of human literature�察 �and�察 �as a record of achievement and of nobility of
character�察�is almost without an equal。
��*�А�Osler wrote a preface for the 1911 English edition of the Life by
Vallery´Radot。Ed。
At the middle of the last century we did not know much more of the
actual causes of the great scourges of the race�察�the plagues�察�the fevers and
the pestilences�察 �than did the Greeks。 Here comes Pasteur's great work。
Before him Egyptian darkness�察�with his advent a light that brightens more
and more as the years give us ever fuller knowledge。 The facts that fevers
were catching�察�that epidemics spread�察�that infection could remain attached
to articles of clothing�察 �etc。�察 �all gave support to the view that the actual
cause was something alive�察�a contagium vivum。 It was really a very old
150
´ Page 151´
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
view�察�the germs of which may be found in the Fathers�察�but which was first
clearly expressedso far as I knowby Fracastorius�察 �the Veronese
physician�察�in the sixteenth century�察 �who spoke of the seeds of contagion
passing from one person to another�撮�12�А �and he first drew a parallel
between the processes of contagion and the fermentation of wine。 This
was more than one hundred years before Kircher�察�Leeuwenhoek and others
began to use the microscope and to see animalcula�撮察�etc。�察�in water�察�and so
give a basis for the ;infinitely little; view of the nature of disease germs。
And it was a study of the processes of fermentation that led Pasteur to the
sure ground on which we now stand。
��12�А �Varro�察 �in De Re Rustica�察 �Bk。 I�察 �12 ��circa 40 B。C。���察 �speaks of
minute organisms which the eye cannot see and which enter the body and
cause disease。
Out of these researches arose a famous battle which kept Pasteur hard
at work for four or five yearsthe struggle over spontaneous generation。 It
was an old warfare�察�but the microscope had revealed a new world�察�and the
experiments on fermentation had lent great weight to the omne vivum ex
ovo doctrine。 The famous Italians�察�Redi and Spallanzani�察�had led the way
in their experiments�察�and the latter had reached the conclusion that there is
no vegetable and no animal that has not its own germ。 But heterogenesis
became the burning question�察 �and Pouchet in France�察 �and Bastian in
England�察 �led the opposition to Pasteur。 The many famous experiments
carried conviction to the minds of scientific men�察 �and destroyed forever
the old belief in spontaneous generation。 All along�察�the analogy between
disease and fermentation must have been in Pasteur's mind�察�and then came
the suggestion�察 �What would be most desirable is to push those studies far
enough to prepare the road for a serious research into the origin of various
diseases。; If the changes in lactic�察�alcoholic and butyric fermentations are
due to minute living organisms�察 �why should not the same tiny creatures
make the changes which occur in the body in the putrid and suppurative
diseases�拭�With an accurate training as a