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the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及16嫗

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unerring     vision   of  a  natural   historian;    ��Gomperz��。      In  the  Hippocratic 

writings�察�there are mentioned 236 plants�察�in the botany of Theophrastus�察�

455。 To one trait of master and pupil I must referthe human feeling�察�not 

alone of man for man�察�but a sympathy that even claims kinship with the 

animal     world。    ;The   spirit  with   which    he   ��Theophrastus��      regarded    the 

animal world found no second expression till the present age; ��Gomperz��。 

Halliday�察  �however��makes   the   statement   that   Porphyry��30�А  �goes   as   far   as 

any modern humanitarian in preaching our duty towards animals。 

     ��30�А  �W。   R。   Halliday�此  �Greek   Divination�察  �London�察  �Macmillan   &   Co。�察�

1913。 



                         ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 



     FROM       the  death    of  Hippocrates     about   the   year   375   B。C。   till  the 

founding of the Alexandrian School�察�the physicians were engrossed largely 

in speculative views�察�and not much real progress was made�察�except in the 

matter of elaborating the humoral pathology。 Only three or four men of the 

first rank stand out in this period�此�Diocles the Carystian�察 �both in time and 

reputation next and second to Hippocrates; ��Pliny���察�a keen anatomist and 

an encyclopaedic writer�察�but only scanty fragments of his work remain。 In 

some   ways   the   most   important   member   of   this   group   was   Praxagoras�察  �a 

native of Cos�察�about 340 B。C。 Aristotle�察�you remember�察�made no essential 

distinction between   arteries   and   veins�察  �both   of   which   he   held   to   contain 

blood�此�Praxagoras recognized that the pulsation was only in the arteries�察�

and maintained that only the veins contained blood�察�and the arteries air。 As 

a rule the arteries are empty after death�察�and Praxagoras believed that they 

were     filled   with   an   aeriform     fluid�察 �a   sort  of   pneuma�察    �which     was 

responsible for their pulsation。 The word arteria�察�which had already been 

applied to the trachea�察�as an air´containing tube�察�was then attached to the 

arteries�察  �on   account   of   the   rough   and   uneven   character   of   its   walls   the 

trachea was then called the arteria tracheia�察�or the rough air´tube。��31a�А�We 

call   it   simply   the   trachea�察  �but   in   French   the   word   trachee´artere   is   still 

used。 

     ��31a�А�Galen�此�De usu partium�察�VII�察�Chaps。 8´9。 

       Praxagoras was one   of the first   to make an   exhaustive study of   the 



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pulse�察  �and   he   must   have   been   a   man   of   considerable   clinical   acumen��as 

well as boldness�察�to recommend in obstruction of the bowels the opening 

of the abdomen�察�removal of the obstructed portion and uniting the ends of 

the intestine by sutures。 

     After the death of Alexander�察�Egypt fell into the hands of his famous 

general�察  �Ptolemy�察     �under   whose   care    the   city   became   one   of   the  most 

important on the  Mediterranean。  He  founded   and   maintained   a  museum�察�

an establishment that corresponded very much to a modern university�察�for 

the    study   of   literature�察  �science    and   the   arts。  Under     his  successors�察�

particularly the third Ptolemy�察�the museum developed�察�more especially the 

library�察�which contained more than half a million volumes。 The teachers 

were drawn from all centres�察�and the names of the great Alexandrians are 

among   the   most   famous   in   the   history   of   human   knowledge�察  �including 

such men as Archimedes�察�Euclid�察�Strabo and Ptolemy。 

     In   mechanics   and   physics�察  �astronomy�察  �mathematics   and   optics�察  �the 

work   of   the   Alexandrians   constitutes   the      basis   of   a  large   part   of  our 

modern knowledge。 The school´boy of todayor at any rate of my day 

studies the identical problems that were set by Euclid 300 B。C。�察�and the 

student of physics still turns to Archimedes and Heron�察�and the astronomer 

to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus。 To those of you who wish to get a brief 

review     of   the   state  of   science    in  the   Alexandrian      School    I  would 

recommend the chapter in Vol。 I of Dannemann's history。��31�А�

     ��31�А    �Friedrich      Dannemann�此        �Grundriss      einer    Geschichte       der 

Naturwissenschaften�察�Vol。 I�察�3d ed。�察�Leipzig�察�1908。 

     Of special interest to us in Alexandria is the growth of the first great 

medical   school   of   antiquity。   Could   we   have   visited   the   famous   museum 

about 300 B。C。�察�we should have found a medical school in full operation�察�

with extensive laboratories�察�libraries and clinics。 Here for the first time the 

study of the structure of the human body reached its full development�察�till 

then   barred   everywhere   by   religious   prejudice�察  �but   full   permission   was 

given by the Ptolemies to perform human dissection and�察�if we may credit 

some authors�察�even vivisection。 The original writings of the chief men of 

this school have not been preserved�察�but there is a possibility that any day 

a papyrus maybe found which will supplement the scrappy and imperfect 



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knowledge        afforded    us   by   Pliny�察  �Celsus    and   Galen。    The    two    most 

distinguished   names   are   Herophiluswho�察  �Pliny   says�察  �has   the   honor   of 

being the first physician ;who searched into the causes of disease; and 

Erasistratus。 

     Herophilus�察�ille anatomicorum coryphaeus�察�as Vesalius calls him�察�was 

a   pupil   of   Praxagoras�察  �and   his   name   is   still   in   everyday   use   by   medical 

students�察  �attached   to   the   torcular   Herophili。   Anatomy   practically   dates 

from     these   Alexandrines�察     �who     described    the   valves    of  the   heart��the 

duodenum�察�and many of the important parts of the brain�察�they recognized 

the   true   significance    of   the  nerves    ��which    before    their  day   had   been 

confounded   with   the  tendons���察 �distinguished between   motor  and   sensory 

nerves�察�and regarded the brain as the seat of the perceptive faculties and 

voluntary action。 Herophilus counted the pulse�察�using the water´clock for 

the purpose�察�and made many subtle analyses of its rate and rhythm�察�and�察�

influenced by the musical theories of the period�察�he built up a rhythmical 

pulse lore which continued in medicine until recent times。 He was a skilful 

practitioner and to him is ascribed the statement that drugs are the hands 

of the gods。 There is a very modern flavor to his oft´quoted expression that 

the best physician was the man who was able to distinguish between the 

possible and the impossible。 

     Erasistratus elaborated the view of the pneuma�察�one form of which he 

believed came from the inspired air�察�and passed to the left side of the heart 

and to the arteries of the body。 It was the cause of the heart´beat and the 

source of the innate heat of the body�察�and it maintained the processes of 

digestion   and   nutrition。   This   was   the   vital   spirit�察  �the   animal   spirit   was 

elaborated in the brain�察�chiefly in the ventricles�察�and sent by the nerves to 

all parts of the body�察�endowing the individual with life and perception and 

motion。 In this way a great division was made between the two functions 

of the body�察�and two sets of organs�此�in the vascular system�察�the heart and 

arteries and abdominal organs�察�life was controlled by the vital spirits�察�on 

the other hand�察�in the nervous system were elaborated the animal spirits�察�

controlling motion�察�sensation and the various special senses。 These views 

on the vital and animal spirits held unquestioned sway until well into the 

eighteenth   century�察  �and   we   still�察  �in   a   measure�察  �express   the   views   of   the 



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great Alexandrian when we speak of ;high; or ;low; spirits。 



                                           GALEN 



     PERGAMON   has   become   little   more   than   a   name   associated   in   our 

memory with the fulminations   of St。 John against   the seven churches of 

Asia�察  �and   on   hearing   the   chapter   read�察  �we   wondered   what   was   ;Satan's 

seat;    and    who    were    the   ;Nicolaitanes;      whose     doctrine     he   so  hated。 

Renewed   interest   has   been   aroused   in   the   story   of   its   growth   and   of   its 

intellectual   rivalry   with   Alexandria   since   the   wonderful   discoveries   by 

German   archaeologists   which   have   enabled   us   actually   to   see   this   great 

Ionian capital�察�and even the ;seat of Satan。; The illustration here shown is 

of the famous city�察�in which you can see the Temple of Athena Polis on the 

rock�察�and the amphitheatre。It s interest for us is connected with the greatest 

name�察     �after  Hippocrates�察      �in  Greek     medicine�察    �that   of  Galen�察    �born    at 

Pergamon A。   D。  130�察  �in   whom  was   united   as never   before   and   indeed 

one      may     say�察   �never     sincethe     treble     combination        of   observer�察�

experimenter   and   philosopher。   His   father�察  �Nikon�察  �a   prosperous   architect�察�

was urged in a dream to devote his son to the profession of medicine�察�upon 

which study the lad entered in his seventeenth year under Satyrus。 In his 

writings�察�Galen gives many details of his life�察�mentioning the names of his 

teachers�察�and many incidents in his Wanderjahre�察�during which he studied 

at the best medical schools�察�including Alexandria。 Returning to his native 

city   he   was   put   in   charge   of   the   gladiators�察  �whose   wounds   he   said   he 

treated with wine。 In the year 162�察�he paid his first visit to Rome�察�the scene 

of   his   greatest   labors。    Here    he  gave    public    lectures   on   anatomy�察    �and 

became ;the fashion。; He mentions many of his successes�察�one of them is 

the   well´worn   story   told   also   of   Erasistratus   and   Stratonice�察  �but   Galen's 

story is worth telling�察�and it is figured as a miniature in the manuscripts of 

his   works。     Called    to  see   a  lady   he   found    her  suffering     from   general 

malaise without any fever or increased action of the pulse。 He saw at once 

that   her   trouble   was   mental   and�察  �like   a   wise   physician�察  �engaged   her   in 

general conversation。 Quite possibly he knew her story�察�for the name of a 

certain   actor�察  �Pylades�察  �was   mentioned�察  �and   he   noticed   that   her   pulse   at 

once     increased     in  rapidity   and    became     irregular。   On    the   next   day   he 



                                       

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