the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及16嫗
梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈��梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈��梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何��
!!!!隆堋響頼��紗秘慕禰厮宴和肝写偬堋響��
unerring vision of a natural historian; ��Gomperz��。 In the Hippocratic
writings�察�there are mentioned 236 plants�察�in the botany of Theophrastus�察�
455。 To one trait of master and pupil I must referthe human feeling�察�not
alone of man for man�察�but a sympathy that even claims kinship with the
animal world。 ;The spirit with which he ��Theophrastus�� regarded the
animal world found no second expression till the present age; ��Gomperz��。
Halliday�察 �however��makes the statement that Porphyry��30�А �goes as far as
any modern humanitarian in preaching our duty towards animals。
��30�А �W。 R。 Halliday�此 �Greek Divination�察 �London�察 �Macmillan & Co。�察�
1913。
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
FROM the death of Hippocrates about the year 375 B。C。 till the
founding of the Alexandrian School�察�the physicians were engrossed largely
in speculative views�察�and not much real progress was made�察�except in the
matter of elaborating the humoral pathology。 Only three or four men of the
first rank stand out in this period�此�Diocles the Carystian�察 �both in time and
reputation next and second to Hippocrates; ��Pliny���察�a keen anatomist and
an encyclopaedic writer�察�but only scanty fragments of his work remain。 In
some ways the most important member of this group was Praxagoras�察 �a
native of Cos�察�about 340 B。C。 Aristotle�察�you remember�察�made no essential
distinction between arteries and veins�察 �both of which he held to contain
blood�此�Praxagoras recognized that the pulsation was only in the arteries�察�
and maintained that only the veins contained blood�察�and the arteries air。 As
a rule the arteries are empty after death�察�and Praxagoras believed that they
were filled with an aeriform fluid�察 �a sort of pneuma�察 �which was
responsible for their pulsation。 The word arteria�察�which had already been
applied to the trachea�察�as an air´containing tube�察�was then attached to the
arteries�察 �on account of the rough and uneven character of its walls the
trachea was then called the arteria tracheia�察�or the rough air´tube。��31a�А�We
call it simply the trachea�察 �but in French the word trachee´artere is still
used。
��31a�А�Galen�此�De usu partium�察�VII�察�Chaps。 8´9。
Praxagoras was one of the first to make an exhaustive study of the
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pulse�察 �and he must have been a man of considerable clinical acumen��as
well as boldness�察�to recommend in obstruction of the bowels the opening
of the abdomen�察�removal of the obstructed portion and uniting the ends of
the intestine by sutures。
After the death of Alexander�察�Egypt fell into the hands of his famous
general�察 �Ptolemy�察 �under whose care the city became one of the most
important on the Mediterranean。 He founded and maintained a museum�察�
an establishment that corresponded very much to a modern university�察�for
the study of literature�察 �science and the arts。 Under his successors�察�
particularly the third Ptolemy�察�the museum developed�察�more especially the
library�察�which contained more than half a million volumes。 The teachers
were drawn from all centres�察�and the names of the great Alexandrians are
among the most famous in the history of human knowledge�察 �including
such men as Archimedes�察�Euclid�察�Strabo and Ptolemy。
In mechanics and physics�察 �astronomy�察 �mathematics and optics�察 �the
work of the Alexandrians constitutes the basis of a large part of our
modern knowledge。 The school´boy of todayor at any rate of my day
studies the identical problems that were set by Euclid 300 B。C。�察�and the
student of physics still turns to Archimedes and Heron�察�and the astronomer
to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus。 To those of you who wish to get a brief
review of the state of science in the Alexandrian School I would
recommend the chapter in Vol。 I of Dannemann's history。��31�А�
��31�А �Friedrich Dannemann�此 �Grundriss einer Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften�察�Vol。 I�察�3d ed。�察�Leipzig�察�1908。
Of special interest to us in Alexandria is the growth of the first great
medical school of antiquity。 Could we have visited the famous museum
about 300 B。C。�察�we should have found a medical school in full operation�察�
with extensive laboratories�察�libraries and clinics。 Here for the first time the
study of the structure of the human body reached its full development�察�till
then barred everywhere by religious prejudice�察 �but full permission was
given by the Ptolemies to perform human dissection and�察�if we may credit
some authors�察�even vivisection。 The original writings of the chief men of
this school have not been preserved�察�but there is a possibility that any day
a papyrus maybe found which will supplement the scrappy and imperfect
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knowledge afforded us by Pliny�察 �Celsus and Galen。 The two most
distinguished names are Herophiluswho�察 �Pliny says�察 �has the honor of
being the first physician ;who searched into the causes of disease; and
Erasistratus。
Herophilus�察�ille anatomicorum coryphaeus�察�as Vesalius calls him�察�was
a pupil of Praxagoras�察 �and his name is still in everyday use by medical
students�察 �attached to the torcular Herophili。 Anatomy practically dates
from these Alexandrines�察 �who described the valves of the heart��the
duodenum�察�and many of the important parts of the brain�察�they recognized
the true significance of the nerves ��which before their day had been
confounded with the tendons���察 �distinguished between motor and sensory
nerves�察�and regarded the brain as the seat of the perceptive faculties and
voluntary action。 Herophilus counted the pulse�察�using the water´clock for
the purpose�察�and made many subtle analyses of its rate and rhythm�察�and�察�
influenced by the musical theories of the period�察�he built up a rhythmical
pulse lore which continued in medicine until recent times。 He was a skilful
practitioner and to him is ascribed the statement that drugs are the hands
of the gods。 There is a very modern flavor to his oft´quoted expression that
the best physician was the man who was able to distinguish between the
possible and the impossible。
Erasistratus elaborated the view of the pneuma�察�one form of which he
believed came from the inspired air�察�and passed to the left side of the heart
and to the arteries of the body。 It was the cause of the heart´beat and the
source of the innate heat of the body�察�and it maintained the processes of
digestion and nutrition。 This was the vital spirit�察 �the animal spirit was
elaborated in the brain�察�chiefly in the ventricles�察�and sent by the nerves to
all parts of the body�察�endowing the individual with life and perception and
motion。 In this way a great division was made between the two functions
of the body�察�and two sets of organs�此�in the vascular system�察�the heart and
arteries and abdominal organs�察�life was controlled by the vital spirits�察�on
the other hand�察�in the nervous system were elaborated the animal spirits�察�
controlling motion�察�sensation and the various special senses。 These views
on the vital and animal spirits held unquestioned sway until well into the
eighteenth century�察 �and we still�察 �in a measure�察 �express the views of the
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great Alexandrian when we speak of ;high; or ;low; spirits。
GALEN
PERGAMON has become little more than a name associated in our
memory with the fulminations of St。 John against the seven churches of
Asia�察 �and on hearing the chapter read�察 �we wondered what was ;Satan's
seat; and who were the ;Nicolaitanes; whose doctrine he so hated。
Renewed interest has been aroused in the story of its growth and of its
intellectual rivalry with Alexandria since the wonderful discoveries by
German archaeologists which have enabled us actually to see this great
Ionian capital�察�and even the ;seat of Satan。; The illustration here shown is
of the famous city�察�in which you can see the Temple of Athena Polis on the
rock�察�and the amphitheatre。It s interest for us is connected with the greatest
name�察 �after Hippocrates�察 �in Greek medicine�察 �that of Galen�察 �born at
Pergamon A。 D。 130�察 �in whom was united as never before and indeed
one may say�察 �never sincethe treble combination of observer�察�
experimenter and philosopher。 His father�察 �Nikon�察 �a prosperous architect�察�
was urged in a dream to devote his son to the profession of medicine�察�upon
which study the lad entered in his seventeenth year under Satyrus。 In his
writings�察�Galen gives many details of his life�察�mentioning the names of his
teachers�察�and many incidents in his Wanderjahre�察�during which he studied
at the best medical schools�察�including Alexandria。 Returning to his native
city he was put in charge of the gladiators�察 �whose wounds he said he
treated with wine。 In the year 162�察�he paid his first visit to Rome�察�the scene
of his greatest labors。 Here he gave public lectures on anatomy�察 �and
became ;the fashion。; He mentions many of his successes�察�one of them is
the well´worn story told also of Erasistratus and Stratonice�察 �but Galen's
story is worth telling�察�and it is figured as a miniature in the manuscripts of
his works。 Called to see a lady he found her suffering from general
malaise without any fever or increased action of the pulse。 He saw at once
that her trouble was mental and�察 �like a wise physician�察 �engaged her in
general conversation。 Quite possibly he knew her story�察�for the name of a
certain actor�察 �Pylades�察 �was mentioned�察 �and he noticed that her pulse at
once increased in rapidity and became irregular。 On the next day he