the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及15嫗
梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈��梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈��梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何��
!!!!隆堋響頼��紗秘慕禰厮宴和肝写偬堋響��
New York�察 �1920�察 �p。 132。 Harington's book originally appeared dated�此�
London 1607。 ��Hoe copy in the Henry E。 Huntington Library。��
According to Littre�察�there is nowhere so strong a statement of these
views in the genuine works of Hippocrates�察�but they are found at large in
the Hippocratic writings�察 �and nothing can be clearer than the following
statement from the work ;The Nature of Man;�此 �The body of man contains
in itself blood and phlegm and yellow bile and black bile�察�which things are
in the natural constitution of his body�察 �and the cause of sickness and of
health。 He is healthy when they are in proper proportion between one
another as regards mixture and force and quantity�察�and when they are well
mingled together�察 �he becomes sick when one of these is diminished or
increased in amount�察�or is separated in the body from its proper mixture�察�
and not properly mingled with all the others。; No words could more
clearly express the views of disease which�察�as I mentioned�察�prevailed until
quite recent years。 The black bile�察�melancholy�察�has given us a great word
in the language�察 �and that we have not yet escaped from the humoral
pathology of Hippocrates is witnessed by the common expression of
biliousness;too much bile; or ;he has a touch of the liver。; The humors�察�
imperfectly mingled�察 �prove irritant in the body。 They are kept in due
proportion by the innate heat which�察�by a sort of internal coction gradually
changes the humors to their proper proportion。 Whatever may be the
primary cause of the change in the humors manifesting itself in disease�察�
the innate heat�察 �or as Hippocrates terms it�察�the nature of the body itself�察�
tends to restore conditions to the norm�察 �and this change occurring
suddenly�察�or abruptly�察�he calls the ;crisis�察─�which is accomplished on some
special day of the disease�察�and is often accompanied by a critical discharge�察�
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or by a drop in the body temperature。 The evil�察�or superabundant�察�humors
were discharged and this view of a special materies morbi�察�to be got rid of
by a natural processor a crisis�察�dominated pathology until quite recently。
Hippocrates had a great belief in the power of nature�察�the vis medicatrix
naturae�察 �to restore the normal state。 A keen observer and an active
practitioner�察 �his views of disease�察 �thus hastily sketched�察 �dominated the
profession for twenty´five centuries�察�indeed�察�echoes of his theories are still
heard in the schools�察 �and his very words are daily on our lips。 If asked
what was the great contribution to medicine of Hippocrates and his school
we could answerthe art of careful observation。
In the Hippocratic writings is summed up the experience of Greece to
the Golden Age of Pericles。 Out of philosophy�察�out of abstract speculation�察�
had come a way of looking at nature for which the physicians were mainly
responsible�察 �and which has changed forever men's views on disease。
Medicine broke its leading strings to religion and philosophya tottering�察�
though lusty�察 �child whose fortunes we are to follow in these lectures。 I
have a feeling that�察 �could we know more of the medical history of the
older races of which I spoke in the first lecture�察�we might find that this was
not the first´born of Asklepios��that there had been many premature births�察�
many still´born offspring�察 �even live´births the products of the
fertilization of nature by the human mind�察�but the record is dark�察�and the
infant was cast out like Israel in the chapter of Isaiah。 But the high´water
mark of mental achievement had not been reached by the great generation
in which Hippocrates had labored。 Socrates had been dead sixteen years�察�
and Plato was a man of forty´five�察�when far away in the north in the little
town of Stagira�察 �on the peninsula of Mount Athos in Macedoniawas�察 �in
384 B。C。�察 �born a ;man of men�察─ �the one above all others to whom the
phrase of Milton may be applied。 The child of an Asklepiad�察�Nicomachus�察�
physician to the father of Philip�察�there must have been a rare conjunction
of the planets at the birth of the great Stagirite。 In the first circle of the
;Inferno�察─�Virgil leads Dante into a wonderful company�察 �star´seated; on
the verdure ��he says��the philosophic family looking with reverence on
;the Master of those who know;il maestro di color che sanno。��28�А�And
with justice has Aristotle been so regarded for these twenty´three centuries。
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No man has ever swayed such an intellectual empirein logic�察�
metaphysics�察 �rhetoric�察 �psychology�察 �ethics�察 �poetry�察 �politics and natural
history�察�in all a creator�察�and in all still a master。 The history of the human
mindoffers no parallel to his career。 As the creator of the sciences of
comparative anatomy�察�systematic zoology�察�embryology�察�teratology�察�botany
and physiology�察 �his writings have an eternal interest。 They present an
extraordinary accumulation of facts relating to the structure and functions
of various parts of the body。 It is an unceasing wonder how one man�察�even
with a school of devoted students�察�could have done so much。
��28�А �The ;Good collector of qualities�察─ �Dioscorides�察 �Hippocrates�察�
Avicenna�察 �Galen and Averroes were the medical members of the group。
Dante�察�Inferno�察�canto iv。
Dissectionalready practiced by Alcmaeon�察 �Democritus�察 �Diogenes
and otherswas conducted on a large scale�察�but the human body was still
taboo。 Aristotle confesses that the ;inward parts of man are known least of
all�察─�and he had never seen the human kidneys or uterus。 In his physiology�察�
I can refer to but one pointthe pivotal question of the heart and blood
vessels。 To Aristotle the heart was the central organ controlling the
circulation�察�the seat of vitality�察�the source of the blood�察�the place in which
it received its final elaboration and impregnation with animal heat。 The
blood was contained in the heart and vessels as in a vasehence the use of
the term ;vessel。; ;From the heart the blood´vessels extend throughout the
body as in the anatomical diagrams which are represented on the walls�察�for
the parts lie round these because they are formed out of them。;��29�А�The
nutriment oozes through the blood vessels and the passages in each of the
parts ;like water in unbaked pottery。; He did not recognize any distinction
between arteries and veins�察�calling both plebes ��Littre���察�the vena cave is
the great vessel�察�and the aorta the smaller�察�but both contain blood。 He did
not use the word ;arteria; ��arthria�� for either of them。 There was no
movement from the heart to the vessels but the blood was incessantly
drawn upon by the substance of the body and as unceasingly renewed by
absorption of the products of digestion��the mesenteric vessels taking up
nutriment very much as the plants take theirs by the roots from the soil。
From the lungs was absorbed the pneuma�察�or spiritus�察�which was conveyed
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to the heart by the pulmonary vesselsone to the right�察�and one to the left
side。 These vessels in the lungs�察 �through mutual contact; with the
branches of the trachea�察�took in the pneuma。 A point of interest is that the
windpipe��or trachea�察 �is called ;arteria�察─ �both by Aristotle and by
Hippocrates �─�Anatomy�察─ �Littre�察 �VIII�察 �539��。 It was the air´tube�察�
disseminating the breath through the lungs。 We shall see in a few minutes
how the term came to be applied to the arteries�察�as we know them。 The
pulsation of the heart and arteries was regarded by Aristotle as a sort of
ebullition in which the liquids were inflated by the vital or innate heat�察�the
fires of which were cooled by the pneuma taken in by the lungs and
carried to the heart by the pulmonary vessels。
��29�А�De Generatione Animalium�察�Oxford translation�察�Bk。 II�察�Chap。 6�察�
Works V�察�743 a。
In Vol。 IV of Gomperz' ;Greek Thinkers�察─�you will find an admirable
discussion on Aristotle as an investigator of nature�察�and those of you who
wish to study his natural history works more closely may do so easilyin
the new translation which is in process of publication by the Clarendon
Press�察�Oxford。 At the end of the chapter ;De Respiratione;in the ;Parva
Naturalia; ��Oxford edition�察 �1908���察 �we have Aristotle's attitude towards
medicine expressed in a way worthy of a son of the profession�此�
;But health and disease also claim the attention of the scientist�察 �and
not merely of the physician�察 �in so far as an account of their causes is
concerned。 The extent to which these two differ and investigate diverse
provinces must not escape us�察�since facts show that their inquiries are�察�at
least to a certain extent�察 �conterminous。 For physicians of culture and
refinement make some mention of natural science��and claim to derive their
principles from it�察�while the most accomplished investigators into nature
generally push their studies so far as to conclude with an account of
medical principles。; ��Works�察�III��480 b。��
Theophrastus�察 �a student of Aristotle and his successor�察 �created the
science of botany and made possible the pharmacologists of a few
centuries later。 Some of you doubtless know him in another guiseas the
author of the golden booklet on ;Characters�察─�in which ;the most eminent
botanist of antiquity observes the doings of men with the keen and
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unerring vision of a natural historian