wealbk01-第55章

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mills　of　any　kind　were　known　in　England　so　early　as　the　beginning

of　the　sixteenth　century；　nor；　so　far　as　I　know；　in　any　other

part　of　Europe　north　of　the　Alps。　They　had　been　introduced　into

Italy　some　time　before。

　　　　　The　consideration　of　these　circumstances　may；　perhaps；　in

some　measure　explain　to　us　why　the　real　price　both　of　the　coarse

and　of　the　fine　manufacture　was　so　much　higher　in　those　ancient

than　it　is　in　the　present　times。　It　cost　a　greater　quantity　of

labour　to　bring　the　goods　to　market。　When　they　were　brought

thither；　therefore；　they　must　have　purchased　or　exchanged　for　the

price　of　a　greater　quantity。

　　　　　The　coarse　manufacture　probably　was；　in　those　ancient　times；

carried　on　in　England；　in　the　same　manner　as　it　always　has　been

in　countries　where　arts　and　manufactures　are　in　their　infancy。　It

was　probably　a　household　manufacture；　in　which　every　different

part　of　the　work　was　occasionally　performed　by　all　the　different

members　of　almost　every　private　family；　but　so　as　to　be　their

work　only　when　they　had　nothing　else　to　do；　and　not　to　be　the

principal　business　from　which　any　of　them　derived　the　greater

part　of　their　subsistence。　The　work　which　is　performed　in　this

manner；　it　has　already　been　observed；　comes　always　much　cheaper

to　market　than　that　which　is　the　principal　or　sole　fund　of　the

workman's　subsistence。　The　fine　manufacture；　on　the　other　hand；

was　not　in　those　times　carried　on　in　England；　but　in　the　rich　and

commercial　country　of　Flanders；　and　it　was　probably　conducted

then；　in　the　same　manner　as　now；　by　people　who　derived　the　whole；

or　the　principal　part　of　their　subsistence　from　it。　It　was；

besides；　a　foreign　manufacture；　and　must　have　paid　some　duty；　the

ancient　custom　of　tonnage　and　poundage　at　least；　to　the　king。

This　duty；　indeed；　would　not　probably　be　very　great。　It　was　not

then　the　policy　of　Europe　to　restrain；　by　high　duties；　the

importation　of　foreign　manufactures；　but　rather　to　encourage　it；

in　order　that　merchants　might　be　enabled　to　supply；　at　as　easy　a

rate　as　possible；　the　great　men　with　the　conveniences　and

luxuries　which　they　wanted；　and　which　the　industry　of　their　own

country　could　not　afford　them。

　　　　　The　consideration　of　these　circumstances　may　perhaps　in　some

measure　explain　to　us　why；　in　those　ancient　times；　the　real　price

of　the　coarse　manufacture　was；　in　proportion　to　that　of　the　fine；

so　much　lower　than　in　the　present　times。　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CONCLUSION　OF　THE　CHAPTER　



　　　　　I　shall　conclude　this　very　long　chapter　with　observing　that

every　improvement　in　the　circumstances　of　the　society　tends

either　directly　or　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land；　to

increase　the　real　wealth　of　the　landlord；　his　power　of　purchasing

the　labour；　or　the　produce　of　the　labour　of　other　people。

　　　　　The　extension　of　improvement　and　cultivation　tends　to　raise

it　directly。　The　landlord's　share　of　the　produce　necessarily

increases　with　the　increase　of　the　produce。

　　　　　That　rise　in　the　real　price　of　those　parts　of　the　rude

produce　of　land；　which　is　first　the　effect　of　extended

improvement　and　cultivation；　and　afterwards　the　cause　of　their

being　still　further　extended；　the　rise　in　the　price　of　cattle；

for　example；　tends　too　to　raise　the　rent　of　land　directly；　and　in

a　still　greater　proportion。　The　real　value　of　the　landlord's

share；　his　real　command　of　the　labour　of　other　people；　not　only

rises　with　the　real　value　of　the　produce；　but　the　proportion　of

his　share　to　the　whole　produce　rises　with　it。　That　produce；　after

the　rise　in　its　real　price；　requires　no　more　labour　to　collect　it

than　before。　A　smaller　proportion　of　it　will；　therefore；　be

sufficient　to　replace；　with　the　ordinary　profit；　the　stock　which

employs　that　labour。　A　greater　proportion　of　it　must；

consequently；　belong　to　the　landlord。

　　　　　All　those　improvements　in　the　productive　powers　of　labour；

which　tend　directly　to　reduce　the　real　price　of　manufactures；

tend　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land。　The　landlord

exchanges　that　part　of　his　rude　produce；　which　is　over　and　above

his　own　consumption；　or　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　the　price

of　that　part　of　it；　for　manufactured　produce。　Whatever　reduces

the　real　price　of　the　latter；　raises　that　of　the　former。　An　equal

quantity　of　the　former　becomes　thereby　equivalent　to　a　greater

quantity　of　the　latter；　and　the　landlord　is　enabled　to　purchase　a

greater　quantity　of　the　conveniences；　ornaments；　or　luxuries；

which　he　has　occasion　for。

　　　　　Every　increase　in　the　real　wealth　of　the　society；　every

increase　in　the　quantity　of　useful　labour　employed　within　it；

tends　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land。　A　certain

proportion　of　this　labour　naturally　goes　to　the　land。　A　greater

number　of　men　and　cattle　are　employed　in　its　cultivation；　the

produce　increases　with　the　increase　of　the　stock　which　is　thus

employed　in　raising　it；　and　the　rent　increases　with　the　produce。

　　　　　The　contrary　circumstances；　the　neglect　of　cultivation　and

improvement；　the　fall　in　the　real　price　of　any　part　of　the　rude

produce　of　land；　the　rise　in　the　real　price　of　manufactures　from

the　decay　of　manufacturing　art　and　industry；　the　declension　of

the　real　wealth　of　the　society；　all　tend；　on　the　other　hand；　to

lower　the　real　rent　of　land；　to　reduce　the　real　wealth　of　the

landlord；　to　diminish　his　power　of　purchasing　either　the　labour；

or　the　produce　of　the　labour　of　other　people。

　　　　　The　whole　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　every

country；　or　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　the　whole　price　of　that

annual　produce；　naturally　divides　itself；　it　has　already　been

observed；　into　three　parts；　the　rent　of　land；　the　wages　of

labour；　and　the　profits　of　stock；　and　constitutes　a　revenue　to

three　different　orders　of　people；　to　those　who　live　by　rent；　to

those　who　live　by　wages；　and　to　those　who　live　by　profit。　These

are　the　three　great；　original；　and　constituent　orders　of　every

civilised　society；　from　whose　revenue　that　of　every　other　order

is　ultimately　derived。

　　　　　The　interest　of　the　first　of　those　three　great　orders；　it

appears　from　what　has　been　just　now　said；　is　strictly　and

inseparably　connected　with　the　general　interest　of　the　society。

Whatever　either　promotes　or　obstructs　the　one；　necessarily

promotes　or　obstructs　the　other。　When　the　public　deliberates

concerning　any　regulation　of　commerce　or　police；　the　proprietors

of　land　never　can　mislead　it；　with　a　view　to　promote　the　interest

of　their　own　particular　order；　at　least；　if　they　have　any

tolerable　knowledge　of　that　interest。　They　are；　indeed；　too　often

defective　in　this　tolerable　knowledge。　They　are　the　only　one　of

the　three　orders　whose　revenue　costs　them　neither　labour　nor

care；　but　comes　to　them；　as　it　were；　of　its　own　accord；　and

independent　of　any　plan　or　project　of　their　own。　That　indolence；

which　is　the　natural　effect　of　the　ease　and　security　of　their

situation；　renders　them　too　often；　not　only　ignorant；　but

incapable　of　that　application　of　mind　which　is　necessary　in　order

to　foresee　and　understand　the　consequences　of　any　public

regulation。

　　　　　The　interest　of　the　second　order；　that　of　those　who　live　by

wages；　is　as　strictly　connected　with　the　interest　of　the　society

as　that　of　the　first。　The　wages　of　the　labourer；　it　has　already

been　shown；　are　never　so　high　as　when　the　demand　for　labour　is

continually　rising；　or　when　the　quantity　employed　is　every　year

increasing　considerably。　When　this　real　wealth　of　the　society

becomes　stationary；　his　wages　are　soon　reduced　to　what　is　barely

enough　to　enable　him　to　bring　up　a　family；　or　to　continue　the

race　of　labourers。　When　the　society　declines；　they　fall　even

below　this。　The　order　of　proprietors　may；　perhaps；　gain　more　by

the　prosperity　of　the　society　than　that　of　labourers：　but　there

is　no　order　that　suffers　so　cruelly　from　its　decline。　But　though

the　interest　of　the　labourer　is　strictly　connected　with　that　of

the　society；　he　is　incapable　either　of　comprehending　that

interest　or　of　understanding　its　connection　with　his　own。　His

condition　leaves　him　no　time　to　receive　the　necessary

information；　and　his　education　and　habits　are　commonly　such　as　to

render　him　unfit　to　judge　even　though　he　was　fully　informed。　In

the　public　deliberations；　therefore；　his　voice　is　little　heard

and　less　regarded；　except　upon　some　particular　occasions；　when

his　clamour　is　animated；　set　on　and　supported　by　his　employers；

not　for　his；　but　their　own　particular　purposes。

　　　　　His　employers　constitute　the　third　order；　that　of　those　who

live　by　profit。　It　is　the　stock　that　is　employed　for　the　sake　of

profit　which　puts　into　motion　the　greater　part　of　the　useful

labour　of　every　society。　The　plans　and　projects　of　the　employers

of　stock　regulate　and　direct　all　the　most　important　operations　of

labour；　and　profit　is　the　end　proposed　by　all　those　plans　and

projects。　But　the　rate　of　profit　does　not；　like　rent　and　wages；

rise　with　the　prosperity　and　fall　with　the　declension　of　the

society。　On　the　contrary；　it　is　naturally　low　in　rich　and　high　in

poor　countries；　and　it　is　always　highest　in　the　countries　which

are　going　fastest　to　ruin。　The　interest　of　this　third　order；

therefore；　has　not　the　same　connection　with　the　general　interest

of　the　society　as　that　of　the　other　two。　Merchants　and　master

manufacturers　are；　in　this　order；　the　two　classes　of　people　who

commonly　employ　the　largest　capitals；　and　who　by　their　wealth

draw　to　themselves　the　greatest　share　of　the　public

consideration。　As　during　their　whole　lives　they　are　engaged　in

plans　and　projects；　they　have　frequently　more　acuteness　of

understanding　than　the　greater　part　of　country　gentlemen。　As

their　thoughts；　however；　are　commonly　exercised　rather　about　the

interest　of　their　own　particular　branch　of　business；　than　about

that　of　the　society；　their　judgment；　even　when　given　with　the

greatest　candour　（which　it　has　not　been　upon　every　occasion）　is

much　more　to　be　depended　upon　with　regard　to　the　former　of　those

two　objects　than　with　regard　to　the　latter。　Their　superiority

over　the　country　gentleman　is　not　so　much　in　their　knowledge　of

the　public　interest；　as　in　their　having　a　better　knowledge　of

their　own　interest　than　he　has　of　his。　It　is　by　this　superior

knowledge　of　their　own　interest　that　they　have　frequently　imposed

upon　his　generosity；　and　persuaded　him　to　give　up　both　his　own

interest　and　that　of　the　public；　from　a　very　simple　but　honest

conviction　that　their　interest；　and　not　his；　was　the　interest　of

the　public。　The　interest　of　the　dealers；　however；　in　any

particular　branch　of　trade　or　manufactures；　is　always　in　some

respects　different　from；　and　even　opposite　to；　that　of　the

public。　To　widen　the　market　and　to　narrow　the　competition；　is

always　the　interest　of　the　dealers。　To　widen　the　market　may

frequently　be　agreeable　enough　to　the　interest　of　the　public；　but

to　narrow　the　competition　must　a