wealbk01-第54章

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Europe　itself　has　received　from　the　great　extension　of　its

commerce　and　navigation。　Many　sorts　of　vegetable　food；　besides；

which　in　the　rude　state　of　agriculture　are　confined　to　the

kitchen…garden；　and　raised　only　by　the　spade；　come　in　its

improved　state　to　be　introduced　into　common　fields；　and　to　be

raised　by　the　plough：　such　as　turnips；　carrots；　cabbages；　etc。　If

in　the　progress　of　improvement；　therefore；　the　real　price　of　one

species　of　food　necessarily　rises；　that　of　another　as　necessarily

falls；　and　it　becomes　a　matter　of　more　nicety　to　judge　how　far

the　rise　in　the　one　may　be　compensated　by　the　fall　in　the　other。

When　the　real　price　of　butcher's　meat　has　once　got　to　its　height

（which；　with　regard　to　every　sort；　except；　perhaps；　that　of　hogs'

flesh；　it　seems　to　have　done　through　a　great　part　of　England　more

than　a　century　ago）；　any　rise　which　can　afterwards　happen　in　that

of　any　other　sort　of　animal　food　cannot　much　affect　the

circumstances　of　the　inferior　ranks　of　people。　The　circumstances

of　the　poor　through　a　great　part　of　England　cannot　surely　be　so

much　distressed　by　any　rise　in　the　price　of　poultry；　fish；

wild…fowl；　or　venison；　as　they　must　be　relieved　by　the　fall　in

that　of　potatoes。

　　　　　In　the　present　season　of　scarcity　the　high　price　of　corn　no

doubt　distresses　the　poor。　But　in　times　of　moderate　plenty；　when

corn　is　at　its　ordinary　or　average　price；　the　natural　rise　in　the

price　of　any　other　sort　of　rude　produce　cannot　much　affect　them。

They　suffer　more；　perhaps；　by　the　artificial　rise　which　has　been

occasioned　by　taxes　in　the　price　of　some　manufactured

commodities；　as　of　salt；　soap；　leather；　candles；　malt；　beer；　and

ale；　etc。　

　　　　　　　　EFFECTS　OF　THE　PROGRESS　OF　IMPROVEMENT　UPON　THE　REAL

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　PRICE　OF　MANUFACTURES　

　　　　　It　is　the　natural　effect　of　improvement；　however；　to

diminish　gradually　the　real　price　of　almost　all　manufactures。

That　of　the　manufacturing　workmanship　diminishes；　perhaps；　in　all

of　them　without　exception。　In　consequence　of　better　machinery；　of

greater　dexterity；　and　of　a　more　proper　division　and　distribution

of　work；　all　of　which　are　the　natural　effects　of　improvement；　a

much　smaller　quantity　of　labour　becomes　requisite　for　executing

any　particular　piece　of　work；　and　though；　in　consequence　of　the

flourishing　circumstances　of　the　society；　the　real　price　of

labour　should　rise　very　considerably；　yet　the　great　diminution　of

the　quantity　will　generally　much　more　than　compensate　the

greatest　rise　which　can　happen　in　the　price。

　　　　　There　are；　indeed；　a　few　manufactures　in　which　the　necessary

rise　in　the　real　price　of　the　rude　materials　will　more　than

compensate　all　the　advantages　which　improvement　can　introduce

into　the　execution　of　the　work。　In　carpenters'　and　joiners'　work；

and　in　the　coarser　sort　of　cabinet　work；　the　necessary　rise　in

the　real　price　of　barren　timber；　in　consequence　of　the

improvement　of　land；　will　more　than　compensate　all　the　advantages

which　can　be　derived　from　the　best　machinery；　the　greatest

dexterity；　and　the　most　proper　division　and　distribution　of　work。

　　　　　But　in　all　cases　in　which　the　real　price　of　the　rude

materials　either　does　not　rise　at　all；　or　does　not　rise　very

much；　that　of　the　manufactured　commodity　sinks　very　considerably。

　　　　　This　diminution　of　price　has；　in　the　course　of　the　present

and　preceding　century；　been　most　remarkable　in　those　manufactures

of　which　the　materials　are　the　coarser　metals。　A　better　movement

of　a　watch；　that　about　the　middle　of　the　last　century　could　have

been　bought　for　twenty　pounds；　may　now　perhaps　be　had　for　twenty

shillings。　In　the　work　of　cutiers　and　locksmiths；　in　all　the　toys

which　are　made　of　the　coarser　metals；　and　in　all　those　goods

which　are　commonly　known　by　the　name　of　Birmingham　and　Sheffield

ware；　there　has　been；　during　the　same　period；　a　very　great

reduction　of　price；　though　not　altogether　so　great　as　in

watch…work。　It　has；　however；　been　sufficient　to　astonish　the

workmen　of　every　other　part　of　Europe；　who　in　many　cases

acknowledge　that　they　can　produce　no　work　of　equal　goodness　for

double；　or　even　for　triple　the　price。　There　are　perhaps　no

manufactures　in　which　the　division　of　labour　can　be　carried

further；　or　in　which　the　machinery　employed　admits　of　a　greater

variety　of　improvements；　than　those　of　which　the　materials　are

the　coarser　metals。

　　　　　In　the　clothing　manufacture　there　has；　during　the　same

period；　been　no　such　sensible　reduction　of　price。　The　price　of

superfine　cloth；　I　have　been　assured；　on　the　contrary；　has；

within　these　five…and…twenty　or　thirty　years；　risen　somewhat　in

proportion　to　its　quality；　owing；　it　was　said；　to　a　considerable

rise　in　the　price　of　the　material；　which　consists　altogether　of

Spanish　wool。　That　of　the　Yorkshire　cloth；　which　is　made

altogether　of　English　wool；　is　said　indeed；　during　the　course　of

the　present　century；　to　have　fallen　a　good　deal　in　proportion　to

its　quality。　Quality；　however；　is　so　very　disputable　a　matter

that　I　look　upon　all　information　of　this　kind　as　somewhat

uncertain。　In　the　clothing　manufacture；　the　division　of　labour　is

nearly　the　same　now　as　it　was　a　century　ago；　and　the　machinery

employed　is　not　very　different。　There　may；　however；　have　been

some　small　improvements　in　both；　which　may　have　occasioned　some

reduction　of　price。

　　　　　But　the　reduction　will　appear　much　more　sensible　and

undeniable　if　we　compare　the　price　of　this　manufacture　in　the

present　times　with　what　it　was　in　a　much　remoter　period；　towards

the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　when　the　labour　was　probably

much　less　subdivided；　and　the　machinery　employed　much　more

imperfect；　than　it　is　at　present。

　　　　　In　1487；　being　the　4th　of　Henry　VII；　it　was　enacted　that

〃whosoever　shall　sell　by　retail　a　broad　yard　of　the　finest

scarlet　grained；　or　of　other　grained　cloth　of　the　finest　making；

above　sixteen　shillings；　shall　forfeit　forty　shillings　for　every

yard　so　sold。〃　Sixteen　shillings；　therefore；　containing　about　the

same　quantity　of　silver　as　four…and…twenty　shillings　of　our

present　money；　was；　at　that　time；　reckoned　not　an　unreasonable

price　for　a　yard　of　the　finest　cloth；　and　as　this　is　a　sumptuary

law；　such　cloth；　it　is　probable；　had　usually　been　sold　somewhat

dearer。　A　guinea　may　be　reckoned　the　highest　price　in　the　present

times。　Even　though　the　quality　of　the　cloths；　therefore；　should

be　supposed　equal；　and　that　of　the　present　times　is　most　probably

much　superior；　yet；　even　upon　this　supposition；　the　money　price

of　the　finest　cloth　appears　to　have　been　considerably　reduced

since　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century。　But　its　real　price　has

been　much　more　reduced。　Six　shillings　and　eightpence　was　then；

and　long　afterwards；　reckoned　the　average　price　of　a　quarter　of

wheat。　Sixteen　shillings；　therefore；　was　the　price　of　two

quarters　and　more　than　three　bushels　of　wheat。　Valuing　a　quarter

of　wheat　in　the　present　times　at　eight…and…twenty　shillings；　the

real　price　of　a　yard　of　fine　cloth　must；　in　those　times；　have

been　equal　to　at　least　three　pounds　six　shillings　and　sixpence　of

our　present　money。　The　man　who　bought　it　must　have　parted　with

the　command　of　a　quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence　equal　to　what

that　sum　would　purchase　in　the　present　times。

　　　　　The　reduction　in　the　real　price　of　the　coarse　manufacture；

though　considerable；　has　not　been　so　great　as　in　that　of　the

fine。

　　　　　In　1643；　being　the　3rd　of　Edward　IV；　it　was　enacted　that　〃no

servant　in　husbandry；　nor　common　labourer；　nor　servant　to　any

artificer　inhabiting　out　of　a　city　or　burgh　shall　use　or　wear　in

their　clothing　any　cloth　above　two　shillings　the　broad　yard。〃　In

the　3rd　of　Edward　IV；　two　shillings　contained　very　nearly　the

same　quantity　of　silver　as　four　of　our　present　money。　But　the

Yorkshire　cloth　which　is　now　sold　at　four　shillings　the　yard　is

probably　much　superior　to　any　that　was　then　made　for　the　wearing

of　the　very　poorest　order　of　common　servants。　Even　the　money

price　of　their　clothing；　therefore；　may；　in　proportion　to　the

quality；　be　somewhat　cheaper　in　the　present　than　it　was　in　those

ancient　times。　The　real　price　is　certainly　a　good　deal　cheaper。

Tenpence　was　then　reckoned　what　is　called　the　moderate　and

reasonable　price　of　a　bushel　of　wheat。　Two　shillings；　therefore；

was　the　price　of　two　bushels　and　near　two　pecks　of　wheat；　which

in　the　present　times；　at　three　shillings　and　sixpence　the　bushel；

would　be　worth　eight　shillings　and　ninepence。　For　a　yard　of　this

cloth　the　poor　servant　must　have　parted　with　the　power　of

purchasing　a　quantity　of　subsistence　equal　to　what　eight

shillings　and　ninepence　would　purchase　in　the　present　times。　This

is　a　sumptuary　law　too；　restraining　the　luxury　and　extravagance

of　the　poor。　Their　clothing；　therefore；　had　commonly　been　much

more　expensive。

　　　　　The　same　order　of　people　are；　by　the　same　law；　prohibited

from　wearing　hose；　of　which　the　price　should　exceed　fourteenpence

the　pair；　equal　to　about　eight…and…twentypence　of　our　present

money。　But　fourteenpence　was　in　those　times　the　price　of　a　bushel

and　near　two　pecks　of　wheat；　which；　in　the　present　times；　at

three　and　sixpence　the　bushel；　would　cost　five　shillings　and

threepence。　We　should　in　the　present　times　consider　this　as　a

very　high　price　for　a　pair　of　stockings；　to　a　servant　of　the

poorest　and　lowest　order。　He　must；　however；　in　those　times　have

paid　what　was　really　equivalent　to　this　price　for　them。

　　　　　In　the　time　of　Edward　IV　the　art　of　knitting　stockings　was

probably　not　known　in　any　part　of　Europe。　Their　hose　were　made　of

common　cloth；　which　may　have　been　one　of　the　causes　of　their

dearness。　The　first　person　that　wore　stockings　in　England　is　said

to　have　been　Queen　Elizabeth。　She　received　them　as　a　present　from

the　Spanish　ambassador。

　　　　　Both　in　the　coarse　and　in　the　fine　woollen　manufacture；　the

machinery　employed　was　much　more　imperfect　in　those　ancient　than

it　is　in　the　present　times。　It　has　since　received　three　very

capital　improvements；　besides；　probably；　many　smaller　ones　of

which　it　may　be　difficult　to　ascertain　either　the　number　or　the

importance。　The　three　capital　improvements　are：　first；　the

exchange　of　the　rock　and　spindle　for　the　spinning…wheel；　which；

with　the　same　quantity　of　labour；　will　perform　more　than　double

the　quantity　of　work。　Secondly；　the　use　of　several　very　ingenious

machines　which　facilitate　and　abridge　in　a　still　greater

proportion　the　winding　of　the　worsted　and　woollen　yarn；　or　the

proper　arrangement　of　the　warp　and　woof　before　they　are　put　into

the　loom；　an　operation　which；　previous　to　the　invention　of　those

machines；　must　have　been　extremely　tedious　and　troublesome。

Thirdly；　the　employment　of　the　fulling　mill　for　thickening　the

cloth；　instead　of　treading　it　in　water。　Neither　wind　nor　water

mills　of　any　kind　were　known　in　England　so　early　as　the　beginning

of　the　sixteenth　century；　nor；　so