wealbk01-第27章

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from　every　exertion　of　his　industry。　An　apprentice　is　likely　to

be　idle；　and　almost　always　is　so；　because　he　has　no　immediate

interest　to　be　otherwise。　In　the　inferior　employments；　the　sweets

of　labour　consist　altogether　in　the　recompense　of　labour。　They

who　are　soonest　in　a　condition　to　enjoy　the　sweets　of　it　are

likely　soonest　to　conceive　a　relish　for　it；　and　to　acquire　the

early　habit　of　industry。　A　young　man　naturally　conceives　an

aversion　to　labour　when　for　a　long　time　he　receives　no　benefit

from　it。　The　boys　who　are　put　out　apprentices　from　public

charities　are　generally　bound　for　more　than　the　usual　number　of

years；　and　they　generally　turn　out　very　idle　and　worthless。

　　　　　Apprenticeships　were　altogether　unknown　to　the　ancients。　The

reciprocal　duties　of　master　and　apprentice　make　a　considerable

article　in　every　modern　code。　The　Roman　law　is　perfectly　silent

with　regard　to　them。　I　know　no　Greek　or　Latin　word　（I　might

venture；　I　believe；　to　assert　that　there　is　none）　which　expresses

the　idea　we　now　annex　to　the　word　Apprentice；　a　servant　bound　to

work　at　a　particular　trade　for　the　benefit　of　a　master；　during　a

term　of　years；　upon　condition　that　the　master　shall　teach　him

that　trade。

　　　　　Long　apprenticeships　are　altogether　unnecessary。　The　arts；

which　are　much　superior　to　common　trades；　such　as　those　of　making

clocks　and　watches；　contain　no　such　mystery　as　to　require　a　long

course　of　instruction。　The　first　invention　of　such　beautiful

machines；　indeed；　and　even　that　of　some　of　the　instruments

employed　in　making　them；　must；　no　doubt；　have　been　the　work　of

deep　thought　and　long　time；　and　may　justly　be　considered　as　among

the　happiest　efforts　of　human　ingenuity。　But　when　both　have　been

fairly　invented　and　are　well　understood；　to　explain　to　any　young

man；　in　the　completest　manner；　how　to　apply　the　instruments　and

how　to　construct　the　machines；　cannot　well　require　more　than　the

lessons　of　a　few　weeks：　perhaps　those　of　a　few　days　might　be

sufficient。　In　the　common　mechanic　trades；　those　of　a　few　days

might　certainly　be　sufficient。　The　dexterity　of　hand；　indeed；

even　in　common　trades；　cannot　be　acquired　without　much　practice

and　experience。　But　a　young　man　would　practice　with　much　more

diligence　and　attention；　if　from　the　beginning　he　wrought　as　a

journeyman；　being　paid　in　proportion　to　the　little　work　which　he

could　execute；　and　paying　in　his　turn　for　the　materials　which　he

might　sometimes　spoil　through　awkwardness　and　inexperience。　His

education　would　generally　in　this　way　be　more　effectual；　and

always　less　tedious　and　expensive。　The　master；　indeed；　would　be　a

loser。　He　would　lose　all　the　wages　of　the　apprentice；　which　he

now　saves；　for　seven　years　together。　In　the　end；　perhaps；　the

apprentice　himself　would　be　a　loser。　In　a　trade　so　easily　learnt

he　would　have　more　competitors；　and　his　wages；　when　he　came　to　be

a　complete　workman；　would　be　much　less　than　at　present。　The　same

increase　of　competition　would　reduce　the　profits　of　the　masters

as　well　as　the　wages　of　the　workmen。　The　trades；　the　crafts；　the

mysteries；　would　all　be　losers。　But　the　public　would　be　a　gainer；

the　work　of　all　artificers　coming　in　this　way　much　cheaper　to

market。

　　　　　It　is　to　prevent　this　reduction　of　price；　and　consequently

of　wages　and　profit；　by　restraining　that　free　competition　which

would　most　certainly　occasion　it；　that　all　corporations；　and　the

greater　part　of　corporation　laws；　have　been　established。　In　order

to　erect　a　corporation；　no　other　authority　in　ancient　times　was

requisite　in　many　parts　of　Europe；　but　that　of　the　town　corporate

in　which　it　was　established。　In　England；　indeed；　a　charter　from

the　king　was　likewise　necessary。　But　this　prerogative　of　the

crown　seems　to　have　been　reserved　rather　for　extorting　money　from

the　subject　than　for　the　defence　of　the　common　liberty　against

such　oppressive　monopolies。　Upon　paying　a　fine　to　the　king；　the

charter　seems　generally　to　have　been　readily　granted；　and　when

any　particular　class　of　artificers　or　traders　thought　proper　to

act　as　a　corporation　without　a　charter；　such　adulterine　guilds；

as　they　were　called；　were　not　always　disfranchised　upon　that

account；　but　obliged　to　fine　annually　to　the　king　for　permission

to　exercise　their　usurped　privileges。　The　immediate　inspection　of

all　corporations；　and　of　the　bye…laws　which　they　might　think

proper　to　enact　for　their　own　government；　belonged　to　the　town

corporate　in　which　they　were　established；　and　whatever　discipline

was　exercised　over　them　proceeded　commonly；　not　from　the　king；

but　from　the　greater　incorporation　of　which　those　subordinate

ones　were　only　parts　or　members。

　　　　　The　government　of　towns　corporate　was　altogether　in　the

hands　of　traders　and　artificers；　and　it　was　the　manifest　interest

of　every　particular　class　of　them　to　prevent　the　market　from

being　overstocked；　as　they　commonly　express　it；　with　their　own

particular　species　of　industry；　which　is　in　reality　to　keep　it

always　understocked。　Each　class　was　eager　to　establish

regulations　proper　for　this　purpose；　and；　provided　it　was　allowed

to　do　so；　was　willing　to　consent　that　every　other　class　should　do

the　same。　In　consequence　of　such　regulations；　indeed；　each　class

was　obliged　to　buy　the　goods　they　had　occasion　for　from　every

other　within　the　town；　somewhat　dearer　than　they　otherwise　might

have　done。　But　in　recompense；　they　were　enabled　to　sell　their　own

just　as　much　dearer；　so　that　so　far　it　was　as　broad　as　long；　as

they　say；　and　in　the　dealings　of　the　different　classes　within　the

town　with　one　another；　none　of　them　were　losers　by　these

regulations。　But　in　their　dealings　with　the　country　they　were　all

great　gainers；　and　in　these　latter　dealings　consists　the　whole

trade　which　supports　and　enriches　every　town。

　　　　　Every　town　draws　its　whole　subsistence；　and　all　the

materials　of　its　industry；　from　the　country。　It　pays　for　these

chiefly　in　two　ways：　first；　by　sending　back　to　the　country　a　part

of　those　materials　wrought　up　and　manufactured；　in　which　case

their　price　is　augmented　by　the　wages　of　the　workmen；　and　the

profits　of　their　masters　or　immediate　employers；　secondly；　by

sending　to　it　a　part　both　of　the　rude　and　manufactured　produce；

either　of　other　countries；　or　of　distant　parts　of　the　same

country；　imported　into　the　town；　in　which　case；　too；　the　original

price　of　those　goods　is　augmented　by　the　wages　of　the　carriers　or

sailors；　and　by　the　profits　of　the　merchants　who　employ　them。　In

what　is　gained　upon　the　first　of　those　two　branches　of　commerce

consists　the　advantage　which　the　town　makes　by　its　manufactures；

in　what　is　gained　upon　the　second；　the　advantage　of　its　inland

and　foreign　trade。　The　wages　of　the　workmen；　and　the　profits　of

their　different　employers；　make　up　the　whole　of　what　is　gained

upon　both。　Whatever　regulations；　therefore；　tend　to　increase

those　wages　and　profits　beyond　what　they　otherwise　would　be；　tend

to　enable　the　town　to　purchase；　with　a　smaller　quantity　of　its

labour；　the　produce　of　a　greater　quantity　of　the　labour　of　the

country。　They　give　the　traders　and　artificers　in　the　town　an

advantage　over　the　landlords；　farmers；　and　labourers　in　the

country；　and　break　down　that　natural　equality　which　would

otherwise　take　place　in　the　commerce　which　is　carried　on　between

them。　The　whole　annual　produce　of　the　labour　of　the　society　is

annually　divided　between　those　two　different　sets　of　people。　By

means　of　those　regulations　a　greater　share　of　it　is　given　to　the

inhabitants　of　the　town　than　would　otherwise　fall　to　them；　and　a

less　to　those　of　the　country。

　　　　　The　price　which　the　town　really　pays　for　the　provisions　and

materials　annually　imported　into　it　is　the　quantity　of

manufactures　and　other　goods　annually　exported　from　it。　The

dearer　the　latter　are　sold；　the　cheaper　the　former　are　bought。

The　industry　of　the　town　becomes　more；　and　that　of　the　country

less　advantageous。

　　　　　That　the　industry　which　is　carried　on　in　towns　is；

everywhere　in　Europe；　more　advantageous　than　that　which　is

carried　on　in　the　country；　without　entering　into　any　very　nice

computations；　we　may　satisfy　ourselves　by　one　very　simple　and

obvious　observation。　In　every　country　of　Europe　we　find；　at

least；　a　hundred　people　who　have　acquired　great　fortunes　from

small　beginnings　by　trade　and　manufactures；　the　industry　which

properly　belongs　to　towns；　for　one　who　has　done　so　by　that　which

properly　belongs　to　the　country；　the　raising　of　rude　produce　by

the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　land。　Industry；　therefore；

must　be　better　rewarded；　the　wages　of　labour　and　the　profits　of

stock　must　evidently　be　greater　in　the　one　situation　than　in　the

other。　But　stock　and　labour　naturally　seek　the　most　advantageous

employment。　They　naturally；　therefore；　resort　as　much　as　they　can

to　the　town；　and　desert　the　country。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　town；　being　collected　into　one　place；

can　easily　combine　together。　The　most　insignificant　trades

carried　on　in　towns　have　accordingly；　in　some　place　or　other；

been　incorporated；　and　even　where　they　have　never　been

incorporated；　yet　the　corporation　spirit；　the　jealousy　of

strangers；　the　aversion　to　take　apprentices；　or　to　communicate

the　secret　of　their　trade；　generally　prevail　in　them；　and　often

teach　them；　by　voluntary　associations　and　agreements；　to　prevent

that　free　competition　which　they　cannot　prohibit　by　bye…laws。　The

trades　which　employ　but　a　small　number　of　hands　run　most　easily

into　such　combinations。　Half　a　dozen　wool…combers；　perhaps；　are

necessary　to　keep　a　thousand　spinners　and　weavers　at　work。　By

combining　not　to　take　apprentices　they　can　not　only　engross　the

employment；　but　reduce　the　whole　manufacture　into　a　sort　of

slavery　to　themselves；　and　raise　the　price　of　their　labour　much

above　what　is　due　to　the　nature　of　their　work。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　the　country；　dispersed　in　distant　places；

cannot　easily　combine　together。　They　have　not　only　never　been

incorporated；　but　the　corporation　spirit　never　has　prevailed

among　them。　No　apprenticeship　has　ever　been　thought　necessary　to

qualify　for　husbandry；　the　great　trade　of　the　country。　After　what

are　called　the　fine　arts；　and　the　liberal　professions；　however；

there　is　perhaps　no　trade　which　requires　so　great　a　variety　of

knowledge　and　experience。　The　innumerable　volumes　which　have　been

written　upon　it　in　all　languages　may　satisfy　us　that；　among　the

wisest　and　most　learned　nations；　it　has　never　been　regarded　as　a

matter　very　easily　understood。　And　from　all　those　volumes　we

shall　in　vain　attempt　to　collect　that　knowledge　of　its　various

and　complicated　operations；　which　is　commonly　possessed　even　by

the　common　farmer；　how　contemptuously　soever　the　very

contemptible　authors　of　some　of　them　may　sometimes　affect　to

speak　of　him。　There　is　scarce　any　common　mechanic　trade；　on　the

contrary；　of　which　all　the　operations　may　not　be　as　completely