wealbk01-第26章

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house…rent　is　the　cause　of　the　cheapness　of　lodging。　The　dearness

of　house…rent　in　London　arises　not　only　from　those　causes　which

render　it　dear　in　all　great　capitals；　the　dearness　of　labour；　the

dearness　of　all　the　materials　of　building；　which　must　generally

be　brought　from　a　great　distance；　and　above　all　the　dearness　of

ground…rent；　every　landlord　acting　the　part　the　part　of　a

monopolist；　and　frequently　exacting　a　higher　rent　for　a　single

acre　of　bad　land　in　a　town　than　can　be　had　for　a　hundred　of　the

best　in　the　country；　but　it　arises　in　part　from　the　peculiar

manners　and　customs　of　the　people；　which　oblige　every　master　of　a

family　to　hire　a　whole　house　from　top　to　bottom。　A　dwelling…house

in　England　means　everything　that　is　contained　under　the　same

roof。　In　France；　Scotland；　and　many　other　parts　of　Europe；　it

frequently　means　no　more　than　a　single　story。　A　tradesman　in

London　is　obliged　to　hire　a　whole　house　in　that　part　of　the　town

where　his　customers　live。　His　shop　is　upon　the　ground…floor；　and

he　and　his　family　sleep　in　the　garret；　and　he　endeavours　to　pay　a

part　of　his　house…rent　by　letting　the　two　middle　stories　to

lodgers。　He　expects　to　maintain　his　family　by　his　trade；　and　not

by　his　lodgers。　Whereas；　at　Paris　and　Edinburgh；　the　people　who

let　lodgings　have　commonly　no　other　means　of　subsistence　and　the

price　of　the　lodging　must　pay；　not　only　the　rent　of　the　house；

but　the　whole　expense　of　the　family。　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　PART　2

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Inequalities　by　the　Policy　of　Europe　

　　　　　SUCH　are　the　inequalities　in　the　whole　of　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；

which　the　defect　of　any　of　the　three　requisites　above　mentioned

must　occasion；　even　where　there　is　the　most　perfect　liberty。　But

the　policy　of　Europe；　by　not　leaving　things　at　perfect　liberty；

occasions　other　inequalities　of　much　greater　importance。

　　　　　It　does　this　chiefly　in　the　three　following　ways。　First；　by

restraining　the　competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller

number　than　would　otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them；

secondly；　by　increasing　it　in　others　beyond　what　it　naturally

would　be；　and；　thirdly；　by　obstructing　the　free　circulation　of

labour　and　stock；　both　from　employment　to　employment　and　from

place　to　place。

　　　　　First；　the　policy　of　Europe　occasions　a　very　important

inequality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of

the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；　by　restraining　the

competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller　number　than　might

otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them。

　　　　　The　exclusive　privileges　of　corporations　are　the　principal

means　it　makes　use　of　for　this　purpose。

　　　　　The　exclusive　privilege　of　an　incorporated　trade　necessarily

restrains　the　competition；　in　the　town　where　it　is　established；

to　those　who　are　free　of　the　trade。　To　have　served　an

apprenticeship　in　the　town；　under　a　master　properly　qualified；　is

commonly　the　necessary　requisite　for　obtaining　this　freedom。　The

bye　laws　of　the　corporation　regulate　sometimes　the　number　of

apprentices　which　any　master　is　allowed　to　have；　and　almost

always　the　number　of　years　which　each　apprentice　is　obliged　to

serve。　The　intention　of　both　regulations　is　to　restrain　the

competition　to　a　much　smaller　number　than　might　otherwise　be

disposed　to　enter　into　the　trade。　The　limitation　of　the　number　of

apprentices　restrains　it　directly。　A　long　term　of　apprenticeship

restrains　it　more　indirectly；　but　as　effectually；　by　increasing

the　expense　of　education。

　　　　　In　Sheffield　no　master　cutler　can　have　more　than　one

apprentice　at　a　time；　by　a　bye　law　of　the　corporation。　In　Norfolk

and　Norwich　no　master　weaver　can　have　more　than　two　apprentices；

under　pain　of　forfeiting　five　pounds　a　month　to　the　king。　No

master　hatter　can　have　more　than　two　apprentices　anywhere　in

England；　or　in　the　English　plantations；　under　pain　of　forfeiting

five　pounds　a　month；　half　to　the　king　and　half　to　him　who　shall

sue　in　any　court　of　record。　Both　these　regulations；　though　they

have　been　confirmed　by　a　public　law　of　the　kingdom；　are　evidently

dictated　by　the　same　corporation　spirit　which　enacted　the　bye…law

of　Sheffield。　The　silk　weavers　in　London　had　scarce　been

incorporated　a　year　when　they　enacted　a　bye…law　restraining　any

master　from　having　more　than　two　apprentices　at　a　time。　It

required　a　particular　Act　of　Parliament　to　rescind　this　bye　law。

　　　　　Seven　years　seem　anciently　to　have　been；　all　over　Europe；

the　usual　term　established　for　the　duration　of　apprenticeships　in

the　greater　part　of　incorporated　trades。　All　such　incorporations

were　anciently　called　universities；　which　indeed　is　the　proper

Latin　name　for　any　incorporation　whatever。　The　university　of

smiths；　the　university　of　tailors；　etc。；　are　expressions　which　we

commonly　meet　with　in　the　old　charters　of　ancient　towns。　When

those　particular　incorporations　which　are　now　peculiarly　called

universities　were　first　established；　the　term　of　years　which　it

was　necessary　to　study；　in　order　to　obtain　the　degree　of　master

of　arts；　appears　evidently　to　have　been　copied　from　the　terms　of

apprenticeship　in　common　trades；　of　which　the　incorporations　were

much　more　ancient。　As　to　have　wrought　seven　years　under　a　master

properly　qualified　was　necessary　in　order　to　entitle　any　person

to　become　a　master；　and　to　have　himself　apprenticed　in　a　common

trade；　so　to　have　studied　seven　years　under　a　master　properly

qualified　was　necessary　to　entitle　him　to　become　a　master；

teacher；　or　doctor　（words　anciently　synonymous）　in　the　liberal

arts；　and　to　have　scholars　or　apprentices　（words　likewise

originally　synonymous）　to　study　under　him。

　　　　　By　the　5th　of　Elizabeth；　commonly　called　the　Statute　of

Apprenticeship；　it　was　enacted；　that　no　person　should　for　the

future　exercise　any　trade；　craft；　or　mystery　at　that　time

exercised　in　England；　unless　he　had　previously　served　to　it　an

apprenticeship　of　seven　years　at　least；　and　what　before　had　been

the　bye　law　of　many　particular　corporations　became　in　England　the

general　and　public　law　of　all　trades　carried　on　in　market　towns。

For　though　the　words　of　the　statute　are　very　general；　and　seem

plainly　to　include　the　whole　kingdom；　by　interpretation　its

operation　has　been　limited　to　market　towns；　it　having　been　held

that　in　country　villages　a　person　may　exercise　several　different

trades；　though　he　has　not　served　a　seven　years'　apprenticeship　to

each；　they　being　necessary　for　the　conveniency　of　the

inhabitants；　and　the　number　of　people　frequently　not　being

sufficient　to　supply　each　with　a　particular　set　of　hands。

　　　　　By　a　strict　interpretation　of　the　words；　too；　the　operation

of　this　statute　has　been　limited　to　those　trades　which　were

established　in　England　before　the　5th　of　Elizabeth；　and　has　never

been　extended　to　such　as　have　been　introduced　since　that　time。

This　limitation　has　given　occasion　to　several　distinctions　which；

considered　as　rules　of　police；　appear　as　foolish　as　can　well　be

imagined。　It　has　been　adjudged；　for　example；　that　a　coachmaker

can　neither　himself　make　nor　employ　journeymen　to　make　his

coach…wheels；　but　must　buy　them　of　a　master　wheel…wright；　this

latter　trade　having　been　exercised　in　England　before　the　5th　of

Elizabeth。　But　a　wheelwright；　though　he　has　never　served　an

apprenticeship　to　a　coachmaker；　may　either　himself　make　or　employ

journeyman　to　make　coaches；　the　trade　of　a　coachmaker　not　being

within　the　statute；　because　not　exercised　in　England　at　the　time

when　it　was　made。　The　manufactures　of　Manchester；　Birmingham；　and

Wolverhampton；　are　many　of　them；　upon　this　account；　not　within

the　statute；　not　having　been　exercised　in　England　before　the　5th

of　Elizabeth。

　　　　　In　France；　the　duration　of　apprenticeships　is　different　in

different　towns　and　in　different　trades。　In　Paris；　five　years　is

the　term　required　in　a　great　number；　but　before　any　person　can　be

qualified　to　exercise　the　trade　as　a　master；　he　must；　in　many　of

them；　serve　five　years　more　as　a　journeyman。　During　this　latter

term　he　is　called　the　companion　of　his　master；　and　the　term

itself　is　called　his　companionship。

　　　　　In　Scotland　there　is　no　general　law　which　regulates

universally　the　duration　of　apprenticeships。　The　term　is

different　in　different　corporations。　Where　it　is　long；　a　part　of

it　may　generally　be　redeemed　by　paying　a　small　fine。　In　most

towns；　too；　a　very　small　fine　is　sufficient　to　purchase　the

freedom　of　any　corporation。　The　weavers　of　linen　and　hempen

cloth；　the　principal　manufactures　of　the　country；　as　well　as　all

other　artificers　subservient　to　them；　wheel…makers；　reel…makers；

etc。；　may　exercise　their　trades　in　any　town　corporate　without

paying　any　fine。　In　all　towns　corporate　all　persons　are　free　to

sell　butcher's　meat　upon　any　lawful　day　of　the　week。　Three　years

in　Scotland　is　a　common　term　of　apprenticeship；　even　in　some　very

nice　trades；　and　in　general　I　know　of　no　country　in　Europe　in

which　corporation　laws　are　so　little　oppressive。

　　　　　The　property　which　every　man　has　in　his　own　labour；　as　it　is

the　original　foundation　of　all　other　property；　so　it　is　the　most

sacred　and　inviolable。　The　patrimony　of　a　poor　man　lies　in　the

strength　and　dexterity　of　his　hands；　and　to　hinder　him　from

employing　this　strength　and　dexterity　of　his　hands；　and　to　hinder

him　from　employing　this　strength　and　dexterity　in　what　manner　he

thinks　proper　without　injury　to　his　neighbour　is　a　plain

violation　of　this　most　sacred　property。　It　is　a　manifest

encroachment　upon　the　just　liberty　both　of　the　workman　and　of

those　who　might　be　disposed　to　employ　him。　As　it　hinders　the　one

from　working　at　what　he　thinks　proper；　so　it　hinders　the　others

from　employing　whom　they　think　proper。　To　judge　whether　he　is　fit

to　be　employed　may　surely　be　trusted　to　the　discretion　of　the

employers　whose　interest　it　so　much　concerns。　The　affected

anxiety　of　the　law…giver　lest　they　should　employ　an　improper

person　is　evidently　as　impertinent　as　it　is　oppressive。

　　　　　The　institution　of　long　apprenticeships　can　give　no　security

that　insufficient　workmanship　shall　not　frequently　be　exposed　to

public　sale。　When　this　is　done　it　is　generally　the　effect　of

fraud；　and　not　of　inability；　and　the　longest　apprenticeship　can

give　no　security　against　fraud。　Quite　different　regulations　are

necessary　to　prevent　this　abuse。　The　sterling　mark　upon　plate；

and　the　stamps　upon　linen　and　woollen　cloth；　give　the　purchaser

much　greater　security　than　any　statute　of　apprenticeship。　He

generally　looks　at　these；　but　never　thinks　it　worth　while　to

inquire　whether　the　workman　had　served　a　seven　years'

apprenticeship。

　　　　　The　institution　of　long　apprenticeships　has　no　tendency　to

form　a　young　people　to　industry。　A　journeyman　who　works　by　the

piece　is　likely　to　be　industrious；　because　he　derives　a　benefit

from　every　exertion　of　his　industry。　An　appren