the foundations of personality-第39章

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　might　venture　on　a　new　belief　or　its　expression；　then　there　came　a　time　when　the　right　to　freedom　of　opinion　and　its　expression　was　conceded；　and　now；　with　huge　forces　confronting　one　another；　freedom　of　opinion＇1＇　is　again　threatened。　But　that　is　an　issue　larger　than　our　subject。　＇1＇　The　most　profound　contribution　to　the　subject　of　discussion　and　freedom　of　opinion　in　recent　years　has　been　written　by　Walter　Lippman　in　the　Atlantic　Monthly；　September；　1920。

You　may　judge　a　man　by　his　type　of　argument　and　his　reaction　to　the　opinions　of　others。　One　should　hold　to　his　own　beliefs　and　opinions；　but　only　if　they　withstand　the　assaults　of　reason。　To　build　ego　feeling　into　opinions　is　to　make　ignorance　sacred。　For　most　of　us　there　are　certain　opinions　that　we　will　not　tolerate；　and　there　are　others　to　which　we　are　indifferent。　There　are　those　who　feel　it　incumbent　on　themselves　to　contradict　any　opinion；　even　if　they　agree　fundamentally　with　it。　The　mere　fact　that　some　one　else　gave　it　utterance　arouses　a　sort　of　jealousy。　Then　there　are　others　who　will　not　permit　any　opinion　of　their　own　to　be　discussed；　to　whom　it　is　a　personal　affront　to　do　this。　What　we　call　urbanity　is　tolerance　of　other　opinions；　what　we　call　reasonableness　is　the　willingness　to　change　opinions　if　convinced。　What　we　call　vacillation　is　to　have　no　fixed　opinion；　to　be　influenced　at　once　by　the　opinions　of　others。　The　pleasure　sought　in　argument　is　a　victory　for　our　opinions　and　thus　for　ourselves。　Here　Montaigne's　wisdom　aptly　expresses　itself：　〃We　deride　ourselves　a　hundred　times　when　we　mock　our　neighbor。〃　He　is　stubborn　and　unreasonable　who　does　not　agree　with　us。　〃Be　reasonable；〃　cry　the　unreasonable　as　they　argue。　〃How　stubborn　and　pigheaded　you　are；〃　say　those　inaccessible　to　reason。　The　difficulty　in　reaching　a　true　estimate　of　the　world；　ourselves　and　our　neighbors　lies　in　the　egoism　which　permeates　our　beliefs　and　opinions。　A　second　direction　of　the　impulse　to　superiority　is　personal　beauty。　Not　only　does　the　young　girl　（or　any　other；　male　or　female）　dress　and　adorn　herself　to　attract　those　whose　good　opinion　she　seeks；　but　also　she　seeks　superiority　over　her　competitors。　Her　own　self…valuation　increases　with　the　admiration　of　some　and　the　discomfiture　of　others。　To　be　beautiful；　attractive　or　pretty　becomes　thus　a　goal　to　many　aims　of　the　personality；　it　offers　a　route　to　success　in　obtaining　power；　riches；　etc。；　it　yields　the　longed…for　admiration；　and　it　gives　the　satisfaction　of　superiority。　It　rarely　has　in　it　any　ideal　of　service　or　of　help；　though　beauty　in　the　abstract　is　an　ideal　of　high　value。　To　desire　to　be　beautiful　physically　as　a　leading　aim　usually　leads　to　selfishness　and　petty　vanity。　As　a　subsidiary　aim　it　balances　character；　but　unfortunately；　as　we　have　before　seen；　it　is　inculcated　as　a　primary　aim　early　in　the　life　of　a　girl。　True；　men　seek　to　be　beautiful　in　a　masculine　way；　but　the　goal　of　masculine　beauty　is　strength；　which　is　directly　serviceable。　This　is　not　to　say　that　there　are　no　men　who　are　vain　of　their　good　looks；　for　there　are　many。　But　only　occasionally　does　one　find　a　man　who　organizes　his　life　efforts　to　be　beautiful；　who　establishes　criteria　of　success　or　failure　on　complexion；　hair；　features　of　face　and　lines　of　figure。　So　long；　therefore；　as　woman　can　obtain　power　through　beauty　and　sex　appeal；　so　long　may　we　expect　a　trivial　trend　in　her　character。　We　have　lost　track　of　our　hypothetical　child　in　the　history　of　his　character　development；　lost　sight　of　him　as　he　struggles　in　a　morass　of　desires　and　purposes　of　power；　fellowship　and　superiority。　His　situations　become　still　more　complex　as　we　watch　him　seek　to　unify　his　life　around　permanent　purposes；　against　a　pestering；　surging；　recurring；　temporary　desire。　He　desires；　let　us　say；　to　conform　to　the　restriction　in　sex；　but　as　he　approaches　adolescence；　within　and　without　stimuli　of　breathless　ardor　assail　him。　He　must　inhibit　them　if　he　proposes　to　be　chaste；　and　his　continent　road　is　beset　with　never…resting　temptations。　He　calls　himself　a　fool　at　times　for　resisting；　and　his　mind　pictures　the　delights　he　missesif　not　from　direct　experience；　from　information　he　gathers　in　books　and　from　those　who　knowand　if　he　yields；　then　self…reproach　embitters　him。　But　correctly　to　portray　the　situation　is　to　drop　our　hypothetical　adolescent；　for　here　is　where　individual　reaction　and　individual　situations　are　too　varied　to　be　met　with　in　one　case。　Some　do　not　inhibit　their　sex　desires　at　all；　others　resist　now　and　then；　others　yield　occasionally；　still　others　remain　faithful　to　the　ideal。　Some　drop　the　conventional　ideal　and　replace　with　unconventional　substitutes；　some　resist　at　great　cost　to　themselves；　and　others　find　no　difficulty　in　resisting　what　is　no　temptation　at　all　to　them。　Passion；　resistance；　opportunity；　training　and　sublimation　differ　as　remarkably　as　nuns　differ　from　prostitutes。　A　similar　situation　is　found　in　the　work　purposes。　To　work　steadily；　with　industry　and　unflagging　effort；　at　something　perhaps　not　inherently　attractive　is　not　merely　a　measure　of　energy；it　is　a　measure　of　inhibition　and　will。　For　there　are　so　many　more　immediate　pleasures　to　be　had；　even　if　offering　only　variety　and　relaxation。　There　is　the　country；　there　is　the　lake　for　fishing；　there　is　the　dance　hall　where　a　pretty　girl　smiles　as　your　arm　encircles　her　waist；　there　is　the　ball　field　where　on　a　fine　day　you　may　go　and　forget　duty　and　strained　effort　in　the　swirl　of　an　enthusiasm　that　emanates　from　the　thousands　around　you　as　they　applaud　the　splendid　athletes；　there　is　the　good　fellowship　and　pleasure　that　beckon　as　you　bend　to　a　task。　To　shut　these　out；　to　inhibit　the　temporary　〃good〃　for　the　permanent　good；　is　the　measure　of　character。　These　sex　and　work　situations　we　must　take　up　in　detail　in　separate　chapters。　What　is　important　is　that　as　life　goes　on；　necessity；　the　social　organization　and　gradual　concentration　of　energy　canalize　the　purposes；　reduce　the　power　of　the　irrelevant　and　temporary　desires。　Habit　and　custom　bring　a　person　into　definite　relationship　with　society；　the　man　becomes　husband；　father；　worker　in　some　definite　field　of　industry；　ambition　becomes　narrowed　down　to　the　possibilities　or　is　entirely　discarded　as　hopeless。　The　character　becomes　a　collection　of　habits；　with　some　controlling　purpose　and　some　characteristic　relaxations。　This　at　least　is　true　of　the　majority　of　men。　Here　and　there　are　those　who　have　not　been　able　to　form　a　unification　even　along　such　simple　lines；　they　are　without　steady　habits；　derelicts　morally；　financially　and　socially；　or　if　with　means　independent　of　personal　effort　they　are　wastrels　and　idlers。　And　again　there　are　the　doers　and　thinkers　of　the　world；　the　fortunate；　whose　lives　are　associated　with　successful　purposes；　whose　ambitions　grow　and　grow　until　they　reach　the　power　of　which　they　dreamed。　There　are　the　reformers　living　in　a　fever　heat　of　purpose；　disdaining　rest　and　relaxation；　dangerously　near　fanaticism　and　not　far　from　mental　unbalance；　but　achieving　through　that　unbalance　things　the　balanced　never　have　the　will　to　attempt。　He　who　works　merely　to　get　rich　or　powerful　or　to　provide　food　for　his　family　cannot　understand　the　zealots　who　see　the　world　as　a　place　where　SOMETHING　MUST　happen；where　slavery　MUST　be　abolished；　women　MUST　have　votes；　children　MUST　go　to　school　until　sixteen；　prostitution　MUST　disappear；　alcohol　MUST　be　prohibited；　etc。　Such　people　miss　the　pretty；　pleasant　relaxing　joys　of　life；　but　they　gain　in　intensity　of　life　what　they　lose　in　diffuseness。　This　war　of　the　permanent　unified　purposes　versus　the　temporary　scattering　desiresthe　power　of　inhibition　is　involved　in　the　health　and　vigor　of　the　person。　Disease；　fatigue　and　often　enough　old　age　show　themselves　in　lowered　purpose；　in　the　failure　of　the　will　（in　the　sense　of　the　energy　of　purpose）；　in　a　scattering　of　activity。　Indeed；　in　the　senile　states　one　too　often　sees　the　disappearance　of　moral　control　where　one　least　expected　it。　And　one　of　the　greatest　tragedies　of　our　times　occurred　when　an　elderly　statesman；　on　the　brink　of　arterial　disease　of　the　brain；　lost　the　strength　and　firmness　of　purpose　that　hitherto　had　characterized　him。　One　of　the　worst　features　of　the　government　of　nations　is　the　predominance　of　old　men　in　the　governing　bodies。　For　not　only　are　they　apt　to　have　over…intellectualized　life；　not　only　have　they　become　specialists　in　purpose　and　therefore　narrow；　but　the　atrophy　of　the　passions　and　desires　of　youth　and　middle　life　has　rendered　them　unfit　to　legislate　for　the　bulk　of　the　race；　who　are　the　young　and　middle…aged。　It　is　no　true　democracy　where　old　age　governs　the　rest　of　the　periods　of　life。　Unification　of　purpose　often　goes　too　far。　Men　lose　sight　of　the　duties　they　owe　to　wife　and　family　in　their　pursuit　of　wealth　or　fame；　they　forget　that　relaxation　and　pleasure…seeking　are　normal　and　legitimate　aims。　They　deify　a　purpose；　they　attach　it　to　themselves　so　that　it　becomes　more　essentially　themselves　than　their　religion　or　their　family。　They　speak　of　their　work　as　if　every　letter　were　capitalized　and　lose　sympathy　and　interest　in　the　rest　of　the　wide　striving　world。　Men　grow　hard；　even　if　philanthropists；　in　too　excessive　a　devotion　to　a　purpose；　and　soon　it　is　their　master；　and　they　are　its　slaves。　Happy　is　he　who　can　follow　his　purpose　efficiently　and　earnestly；　but　who　can　find　interest　in　many　things；　pleasure　in　the　wide　range　of　joys　the　world　offers　and　a　youthful　curiosity　and　zest　in　the　new。　Every　human　being；　no　matter　how　civilized　and　unified；　how　modern　and　social　in　his　conduct；　has　within　him　a　core　of　uncivilized；　disintegrating；　ancient　and　egoistic　desires　and　purposes。　〃I　feel　two　natures　struggling　within　me〃　is　the　epitome　of　every　man's　life。　This　is　what　has　been　called　conflict　by　the　psychoanalysts；　and　my　own　disagreement　with　them　is　that　I　believe　it　to　be　distinctly　conscious　in　the　main。　A　man　knows　that　the　pretty　young　girls　he　meets　tempt　him　from　his　allegiance　to　his　wife　and　his　desires　to　be　good；　a　woman　knows　that　the　prosaic　husband　no　longer　pleases；　and　why　he　does　not　please；only　if　you　ask　either　of　them　bluntly　and　directly　they　will　deny　their　difficulties。　The　organic　activities　of　the　body；　basic　in　desire　of　all　kinds；　are　crude　and　give　rise　to　crude　forbidden　wishes；　but　the　struggle　that　goes　on　is　repressed；　rebelled　against　and　gives　rise　to　trains　of　secondary　symptoms；fatigue；　headache；　indigestion；　weariness　of　life　and　many　other　complaints。　It　is　perfectly　proper　to　complain　of　headache；　but　it　is　a　humiliation　to　say　that　you　have　chosen　wrongly　in　marriage；　or　that　you　are　essentially　polygamous；　or　that　an　eight…hour　day　of　work　at　clerking　or　bookkeeping　disgusts　and　bores　you。　People　complain　of　that　which　is　proper　and　allows　them　to　maintain　self…respect；　but　they　hide　that　which　may　lower　them　in　the　eyes　of　others。　Gain　their　confidence；　show　that　you　see　deeper　than　their　words　and　you　get　revelations　that　need　no　psychoanalytic　technique　to　elicit　and　which　are　distinctly　conscious。　This　brings　me　to　the　point　that　the　constant　inhibition；　blocking　and　balking　of　desires　and　wishes；　though　in　part　socially　necessary　and　ethically　justifiable；　is　decidedly　wearisome；　at　ti