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and of the following years; that is to say; of exceedingly sensitive

men doing each other all possible harm; inexperienced in political

business; Utopians; impatient; intractable; and overexcited。

Calculations had been made on these prodigiously false data;

consequently; although the calculations were very exact; the results

obtained were found absurd。 Relying on these data; the machine had

been planned; and all its parts been adjusted; assembled; and

balanced。 That is why the machine; irreproachable in theory; remained

unsuccessful in practice: the better it appeared on paper the quicker

it broke down when set up on the ground。



II。 Default of previous government。



The consequences of the years 1789 to 1799。 … Insubordination of the

local powers; conflict of the central powers; suppression of liberal

institutions; and the establishment of an unstable despotism。 … Evil…

doing of the government thus formed。



A capital defect at once declared itself in the two principal

compositions; in the working gear of the superposed powers and in the

balance of the motor powers。 … In the first place; the hold given to

the central government on its local subordinates was evidently too

feeble; with no right to appoint these; it could not select them as it

pleased; according to the requirements of the service。 Department;

district; canton; and commune administrators; civil and criminal

judges; assessors; appraisers; and collectors of taxes; officers of

the national…guard and even of the gendarmerie; police…commissioners;

and other agents who had to enforce laws on the spot; were nearly all

recruited elsewhere: either in popular assemblies or provided ready…

made by elected bodies。'1'  They were for it merely borrowed

instruments; thus originating; they escaped its control; it could not

make them work as it wanted them to work。 On most occasions they would

shirk their duties; at other times; on receiving orders; they would

stand inert; or; again; they would act outside of or beyond their

special function; either going too far or acting in a contrary sense;

never did they act with moderation and precision; with coherence and

consequence。 For this reason any desire of the government to do its

job proved unsuccessful。 Its legal subordinates … incapable; timid;

lukewarm; unmanageable; or even hostile … obeyed badly; did not obey

at all; or willfully disobeyed。 The blade of the executive instrument;

loose in the handle; glanced or broke off when the thrust had to be

made。



In the second place; never could the two or three motor forces

thrusting the handle act in harmony; owing to the clashing of so many

of them; one always ended in breaking down the other。 The Constituent

Assembly had set aside the King; the Legislative Assembly had deposed

him; the Convention had decapitated him。 Afterward each fraction of

the sovereign body in the Convention had proscribed the other; the

Montagnards had guillotined the Girondists; and the Thermidorians had

guillotined the Montagnards。 Later; under the Constitution of the year

III; the Fructidorians had banished the Constitutionalists; the

Directory had purged the Councils; and the Councils had purged the

Directory。 … Not only did the democratic and parliamentary institution

fail in its work and break down on trial; but; again; through its own

action; it became transformed into its opposite。 In a year or two a

coup d'état in Paris took place; a faction seized the central power

and converted it into an absolute power in the hands of five or six

ringleaders。 The new government at once re…forged the executive

instrument for its own advantage and refastened the blade firmly on

the handle; in the provinces it dismissed those elected by the people

and deprived the governed of the right to choose their own rulers;

henceforth; through its proconsuls on mission; or through its resident

commissioners; it alone appointed; superintended; and regulated on the

spot all local authorities。'2'



Thus the liberal constitution; at its close; gave birth to a

centralized despotism; and this was the worst of its species; at once

formless and monstrous; for it was born out of a civil crime; while

the government which used it had no support but a band of bigoted

fanatics or political adventurers; without any legal authority over

the nation; or any moral hold on the army; detested; threatened;

discordant; exposed to the resistance of its own upholders; to the

treachery of its own members; and living only from day to day; it

could maintain itself only through a brutal absolutism and permanent

terror; while the public power of which the first care is the

protection of property; consciences; and lives; became in its hands

the worst of persecutors; robbers; and murderers。





III。



In 1799; the undertaking is more difficult and the materials worse。



Twice in succession had the experiment been tried; the monarchical

constitution of 1791; and the republican constitution of 1795; twice

in succession had the same events followed the same course to attain

the same end; twice in succession had the theoretical; cunningly…

devised machine for universal protection changed into an efficient and

brutal machine for universal oppression。 It is evident that if the

same machine were started the third time under analogous conditions;

one might expect to see it work in the same manner; that is to say;

contrary to its purpose。



Now; in 1799; the conditions were analogous; and even worse; for the

work which the machine had to do was not less; while the human

materials available for its construction were not so good。 …

Externally; the country was constantly at war with Europe; peace could

not be secured except by great military effort; and peace was as

difficult to preserve as to win。 The European equilibrium had been too

greatly disturbed; neighboring or rival States had suffered too much;

the rancor and distrust provoked by the invading revolutionary

republic were too active; these would have lasted a long time against

pacified France even after she had concluded reasonable treaties。 Even

should she abandon a policy of propaganda and interference; return

brilliant acquisitions; cease the domination of protectorates; and

abandon the disguised annexation of Italy; Holland; and Switzerland;

the nation was still bound to keep watch under arms。 A government able

to concentrate all its forces … that is to say; placed above and

beyond all dispute and promptly obeyed…was indispensable; if only to

remain intact and complete; to keep Belgium and the frontier of the

Rhine。 … Likewise internally; and for no other purpose than to restore

civil order; for here; too; the outrages of the Revolution had been

too great。 There had been too much spoliation; too many imprisonments;

exiles; and murders; too many violations of every kind; too many

invasions of the rights of property and of persons; public and

private。 It was so much more difficult



* To insure respect for persons and all private and public

  possessions;

* to restrain at once both Royalists and Jacobins;

* to restore 140;000 émigrés to their country and yet satisfy

  1;200;000 possessors of national property;

* to give back to 25;000;000 of orthodox Catholics the right; faculty;

  and means for worshipping; and yet not allow the schismatic clergy to

  be maltreated;

* to bring face to face in the same commune the dispossessed seigneur

  and the peasant holders of his domain;

* to compel the delegates of the Committee of Public Safety and their

  victims; the shooters and the shot of Vendémiaire; the Fructidorians

  and the Fructidorized; the Whites and the Blues of La Vendée and

  Brittany; to live in peace side by side;



because the future laborers in this immense work; from the village

mayor to the state…senator and state…councilor; had borne a part in

the Revolution; either in effecting it or under subjection to it …

Monarchists; Feuillantists; Girondists; Montagnards; Thermidorians;

moderate Jacobins or desperate Jacobins; all oppressed in turn and

disappointed in their calculations。 Their passions; under this régime;

had become embittered; each brought personal bias and resentment into

the performance of his duties; to prevent him from being unjust and

mischievous demanded a tightened curb。'3' All sense of conviction;

under this régime; had died out; no body would serve gratis as in

1789;'4' nobody would work without pay; disinterestedness had lost all

charm; ostentatious zeal seemed hypocrisy; genuine zeal seemed self…

dupery; each looked out for himself and not for the community; public

spirit had yielded to indifference; to egotism; and to the need of

security; of enjoyment; and of self…advancement。 Human materials;

deteriorated by the Revolution; were less than ever suited to

providing citizens … they simply furnished functionaries。 With such

wheels combined together according to formula current between 1791 and

1795; the requisite work could not possibly be done。 As a consequence;

definitely and for a long time; any use of the two great liberal

mechanisms were doomed。 So long as the wheels remained of such poor

quality and the task so hard; both the election of local powers and

the division of the central power had to be abandoned。





IV。



Motives for suppressing the election of local powers。 … The Electors。

… Their egoism and partiality。 … The Elected。 … Their inertia;

corruption; and disobedience。



All were agreed on the first point。 If any still doubted; they had

only to open their eyes; fix them on the local authorities; watch them

as soon as born; and follow them throughout the exercise of their

functions。 … Naturally; in filling each office; the electors had

chosen a man of their own species and caliber; their fixed and

dominant disposition was accordingly well known; they were indifferent

to public matters and therefore their candidate was as indifferent as

themselves。 Had they shown too great a concern for the nation this

would have prevented their election; the State to them was a

troublesome moralist and remote creditor。 Their candidate must choose

between them and this intruder; side with them against it; and not act

as a pedagogue in its name or as bailiff on its behalf。 When power is

born on the spot and conferred to…day by constituents who are to

submit to it to…morrow as subordinates; they do not put the whip in

the hands of one who will flog them; they demand sentiments of him in

conformity with their inclinations; in any event they will not

tolerate in him the opposite ones。 From the beginning; this

resemblance between them and him is great; and it goes on increasing

from day to day because the creature is always in the hands of his

creators; subject to their daily pressure; he at last becomes as they

are; after a certain period they have shaped him in their image

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