the critique of pure reason-第94章

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progression　through　their　affinity　were　continuous；　the　intermediate

members　lying　between　two　given　species　must　be　infinite　in　number；

which　is　impossible。　Secondly；　because　we　cannot　make　any

determinate　empirical　use　of　this　law；　inasmuch　as　it　does　not　present

us　with　any　criterion　of　affinity　which　could　aid　us　in　determining

how　far　we　ought　to　pursue　the　graduation　of　differences：　it　merely

contains　a　general　indication　that　it　is　our　duty　to　seek　for　and；

if　possible；　to　discover　them。

　　When　we　arrange　these　principles　of　systematic　unity　in　the　order

conformable　to　their　employment　in　experience；　they　will　stand　thus：

Variety；　Affinity；　Unity；　each　of　them；　as　ideas；　being　taken　in　the

highest　degree　of　their　completeness。　Reason　presupposes　the　existence

of　cognitions　of　the　understanding；　which　have　a　direct　relation　to

experience；　and　aims　at　the　ideal　unity　of　these　cognitions…　a　unity

which　far　transcends　all　experience　or　empirical　notions。　The　affinity

of　the　diverse；　notwithstanding　the　differences　existing　between　its

parts；　has　a　relation　to　things；　but　a　still　closer　one　to　the　mere

properties　and　powers　of　things。　For　example；　imperfect　experience　may

represent　the　orbits　of　the　planets　as　circular。　But　we　discover

variations　from　this　course；　and　we　proceed　to　suppose　that　the

planets　revolve　in　a　path　which；　if　not　a　circle；　is　of　a　character

very　similar　to　it。　That　is　to　say；　the　movements　of　those　planets

which　do　not　form　a　circle　will　approximate　more　or　less　to　the

properties　of　a　circle；　and　probably　form　an　ellipse。　The　paths　of

comets　exhibit　still　greater　variations；　for；　so　far　as　our

observation　extends；　they　do　not　return　upon　their　own　course　in　a

circle　or　ellipse。　But　we　proceed　to　the　conjecture　that　comets

describe　a　parabola；　a　figure　which　is　closely　allied　to　the

ellipse。　In　fact；　a　parabola　is　merely　an　ellipse；　with　its　longer

axis　produced　to　an　indefinite　extent。　Thus　these　principles　conduct

us　to　a　unity　in　the　genera　of　the　forms　of　these　orbits；　and；

proceeding　farther；　to　a　unity　as　regards　the　cause　of　the　motions

of　the　heavenly　bodies…　that　is；　gravitation。　But　we　go　on　extending

our　conquests　over　nature；　and　endeavour　to　explain　all　seeming

deviations　from　these　rules；　and　even　make　additions　to　our　system

which　no　experience　can　ever　substantiate…　for　example；　the　theory；　in

affinity　with　that　of　ellipses；　of　hyperbolic　paths　of　comets；

pursuing　which；　these　bodies　leave　our　solar　system　and；　passing

from　sun　to　sun；　unite　the　most　distant　parts　of　the　infinite

universe；　which　is　held　together　by　the　same　moving　power。

　　The　most　remarkable　circumstance　connected　with　these　principles

is　that　they　seem　to　be　transcendental；　and；　although　only

containing　ideas　for　the　guidance　of　the　empirical　exercise　of　reason；

and　although　this　empirical　employment　stands　to　these　ideas　in　an

asymptotic　relation　alone　（to　use　a　mathematical　term）；　that　is；

continually　approximate；　without　ever　being　able　to　attain　to　them；

they　possess；　notwithstanding；　as　a　priori　synthetical　propositions；

objective　though　undetermined　validity；　and　are　available　as　rules　for

possible　experience。　In　the　elaboration　of　our　experience；　they　may

also　be　employed　with　great　advantage；　as　heuristic*　principles。　A

transcendental　deduction　of　them　cannot　be　made；　such　a　deduction

being　always　impossible　in　the　case　of　ideas；　as　has　been　already

shown。



　　*From　the　Greek；　eurhioko。



　　We　distinguished；　in　the　Transcendental　Analytic；　the　dynamical

principles　of　the　understanding；　which　are　regulative　principles　of

intuition；　from　the　mathematical；　which　are　constitutive　principles　of

intuition。　These　dynamical　laws　are；　however；　constitutive　in　relation

to　experience；　inasmuch　as　they　render　the　conceptions　without　which

experience　could　not　exist　possible　a　priori。　But　the　principles　of

pure　reason　cannot　be　constitutive　even　in　regard　to　empirical

conceptions；　because　no　sensuous　schema　corresponding　to　them　can　be

discovered；　and　they　cannot　therefore　have　an　object　in　concreto。　Now；

if　I　grant　that　they　cannot　be　employed　in　the　sphere　of　experience；

as　constitutive　principles；　how　shall　I　secure　for　them　employment　and

objective　validity　as　regulative　principles；　and　in　what　way　can

they　be　so　employed？

　　The　understanding　is　the　object　of　reason；　as　sensibility　is　the

object　of　the　understanding。　The　production　of　systematic　unity　in　all

the　empirical　operations　of　the　understanding　is　the　proper　occupation

of　reason；　just　as　it　is　the　business　of　the　understanding　to

connect　the　various　content　of　phenomena　by　means　of　conceptions；

and　subject　them　to　empirical　laws。　But　the　operations　of　the

understanding　are；　without　the　schemata　of　sensibility；

undetermined；　and；　in　the　same　manner；　the　unity　of　reason　is

perfectly　undetermined　as　regards　the　conditions　under　which；　and

the　extent　to　which；　the　understanding　ought　to　carry　the　systematic

connection　of　its　conceptions。　But；　although　it　is　impossible　to

discover　in　intuition　a　schema　for　the　complete　systematic　unity　of

all　the　conceptions　of　the　understanding；　there　must　be　some

analogon　of　this　schema。　This　analogon　is　the　idea　of　the　maximum　of

the　division　and　the　connection　of　our　cognition　in　one　principle。　For

we　may　have　a　determinate　notion　of　a　maximum　and　an　absolutely

perfect；　all　the　restrictive　conditions　which　are　connected　with　an

indeterminate　and　various　content　having　been　abstracted。　Thus　the

idea　of　reason　is　analogous　with　a　sensuous　schema；　with　this

difference；　that　the　application　of　the　categories　to　the　schema　of

reason　does　not　present　a　cognition　of　any　object　（as　is　the　case　with

the　application　of　the　categories　to　sensuous　schemata）；　but　merely

provides　us　with　a　rule　or　principle　for　the　systematic　unity　of　the

exercise　of　the　understanding。　Now；　as　every　principle　which　imposes

upon　the　exercise　of　the　understanding　a　priori　compliance　with　the

rule　of　systematic　unity　also　relates；　although　only　in　an　indirect

manner；　to　an　object　of　experience；　the　principles　of　pure　reason　will

also　possess　objective　reality　and　validity　in　relation　to　experience。

But　they　will　not　aim　at　determining　our　knowledge　in　regard　to　any

empirical　object；　they　will　merely　indicate　the　procedure；　following

which　the　empirical　and　determinate　exercise　of　the　understanding

may　be　in　complete　harmony　and　connection　with　itself…　a　result

which　is　produced　by　its　being　brought　into　harmony　with　the　principle

of　systematic　unity；　so　far　as　that　is　possible；　and　deduced　from　it。

　　I　term　all　subjective　principles；　which　are　not　derived　from

observation　of　the　constitution　of　an　object；　but　from　the　interest

which　Reason　has　in　producing　a　certain　completeness　in　her

cognition　of　that　object；　maxims　of　reason。　Thus　there　are　maxims　of

speculative　reason；　which　are　based　solely　upon　its　speculative

interest；　although　they　appear　to　be　objective　principles。

　　When　principles　which　are　really　regulative　are　regarded　as

constitutive；　and　employed　as　objective　principles；　contradictions

must　arise；　but　if　they　are　considered　as　mere　maxims；　there　is　no

room　for　contradictions　of　any　kind；　as　they　then　merely　indicate

the　different　interests　of　reason；　which　occasion　differences　in　the

mode　of　thought。　In　effect；　Reason　has　only　one　single　interest；　and

the　seeming　contradiction　existing　between　her　maxims　merely　indicates

a　difference　in；　and　a　reciprocal　limitation　of；　the　methods　by

which　this　interest　is　satisfied。

　　This　reasoner　has　at　heart　the　interest　of　diversity…　in

accordance　with　the　principle　of　specification；　another；　the

interest　of　unity…　in　accordance　with　the　principle　of　aggregation。

Each　believes　that　his　judgement　rests　upon　a　thorough　insight　into

the　subject　he　is　examining；　and　yet　it　has　been　influenced　solely

by　a　greater　or　less　degree　of　adherence　to　some　one　of　the　two

principles；　neither　of　which　are　objective；　but　originate　solely

from　the　interest　of　reason；　and　on　this　account　to　be　termed　maxims

rather　than　principles。　When　I　observe　intelligent　men　disputing　about

the　distinctive　characteristics　of　men；　animals；　or　plants；　and　even

of　minerals；　those　on　the　one　side　assuming　the　existence　of　certain

national　characteristics；　certain　well…defined　and　hereditary

distinctions　of　family；　race；　and　so　on；　while　the　other　side　maintain

that　nature　has　endowed　all　races　of　men　with　the　same　faculties　and

dispositions；　and　that　all　differences　are　but　the　result　of

external　and　accidental　circumstances…　I　have　only　to　consider　for　a

moment　the　real　nature　of　the　subject　of　discussion；　to　arrive　at

the　conclusion　that　it　is　a　subject　far　too　deep　for　us　to　judge　of；

and　that　there　is　little　probability　of　either　party　being　able　to

speak　from　a　perfect　insight　into　and　understanding　of　the　nature　of

the　subject　itself。　Both　have；　in　reality；　been　struggling　for　the

twofold　interest　of　reason；　the　one　maintaining　the　one　interest；

the　other　the　other。　But　this　difference　between　the　maxims　of

diversity　and　unity　may　easily　be　reconciled　and　adjusted；　although；

so　long　as　they　are　regarded　as　objective　principles；　they　must

occasion　not　only　contradictions　and　polemic；　but　place　hinderances　in

the　way　of　the　advancement　of　truth；　until　some　means　is　discovered　of

reconciling　these　conflicting　interests；　and　bringing　reason　into

union　and　harmony　with　itself。

　　The　same　is　the　case　with　the　so…called　law　discovered　by

Leibnitz；　and　supported　with　remarkable　ability　by　Bonnet…　the　law

of　the　continuous　gradation　of　created　beings；　which　is　nothing　more

than　an　inference　from　the　principle　of　affinity；　for　observation

and　study　of　the　order　of　nature　could　never　present　it　to　the　mind　as

an　objective　truth。　The　steps　of　this　ladder；　as　they　appear　in

experience；　are　too　far　apart　from　each　other；　and　the　so…called　petty

differences　between　different　kinds　of　animals　are　in　nature

commonly　so　wide　separations　that　no　confidence　can　be　placed　in

such　views　（particularly　when　we　reflect　on　the　great　variety　of

things；　and　the　ease　with　which　we　can　discover　resemblances）；　and

no　faith　in　the　laws　which　are　said　to　express　the　aims　and　purposes

of　nature。　On　the　other　hand；　the　method　of　investigating　the　order　of

nature　in　the　light　of　this　principle；　and　the　maxim　which　requires　us

to　regard　this　order…　it　being　still　undetermined　how　far　it

extends…　as　really　existing　in　nature；　is　beyond　doubt　a　legitimate

and　excellent　principle　of　reason…　a　principle　which　extends　farther

than　any　experience　or　observation　of　ours　and　which；　without　giving

us　any　positive　knowledge　of　anything　in　the　region　of　experience；

guides　us　to　the　goal　of　systematic　unity。



　　Of　the　Ultimate　End　of　the　Natural　Dialectic　of　Human　Reason。



　　The　ideas　of　pure　reason　cann