the crowd-第9章

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s　ideas　stored　up　in　its　understanding；　and　is　capable；　in　consequence；　of　committing　the　most　dissimilar　acts。　　Its　complete　lack　of　the　critical　spirit　does　not　allow　of　its　perceiving　these　contradictions。

This　phenomenon　is　not　peculiar　to　crowds。　　It　is　to　be　observed　in　many　isolated　individuals；　not　only　among　primitive　beings；　but　in　the　case　of　all　thosethe　fervent　sectaries　of　a　religious　faith；　for　instancewho　by　one　side　or　another　of　their　intelligence　are　akin　to　primitive　beings。　　I　have　observed　its　presence　to　a　curious　extent　in　the　case　of　educated　Hindoos　brought　up　at　our　European　universities　and　having　taken　their　degree。　　A　number　of　Western　ideas　had　been　superposed　on　their　unchangeable　and　fundamental　hereditary　or　social　ideas。　According　to　the　chances　of　the　moment；　the　one　or　the　other　set　of　ideas　showed　themselves　each　with　their　special　accompaniment　of　acts　or　utterances；　the　same　individual　presenting　in　this　way　the　most　flagrant　contradictions。　　These　contradictions　are　more　apparent　than　real；　for　it　is　only　hereditary　ideas　that　have　sufficient　influence　over　the　isolated　individual　to　become　motives　of　conduct。　　It　is　only　when；　as　the　result　of　the　intermingling　of　different　races；　a　man　is　placed　between　different　hereditary　tendencies　that　his　acts　from　one　moment　to　another　may　be　really　entirely　contradictory。　　It　would　be　useless　to　insist　here　on　these　phenomena；　although　their　psychological　importance　is　capital。　　I　am　of　opinion　that　at　least　ten　years　of　travel　and　observation　would　be　necessary　to　arrive　at　a　comprehension　of　them。

Ideas　being　only　accessible　to　crowds　after　having　assumed　a　very　simple　shape　must　often　undergo　the　most　thoroughgoing　transformations　to　become　popular。　　It　is　especially　when　we　are　dealing　with　somewhat　lofty　philosophic　or　scientific　ideas　that　we　see　how　far…reaching　are　the　modifications　they　require　in　order　to　lower　them　to　the　level　of　the　intelligence　of　crowds。　These　modifications　are　dependent　on　the　nature　of　the　crowds；　or　of　the　race　to　which　the　crowds　belong；　but　their　tendency　is　always　belittling　and　in　the　direction　of　simplification。　　This　explains　the　fact　that；　from　the　social　point　of　view；　there　is　in　reality　scarcely　any　such　thing　as　a　hierarchy　of　ideasthat　is　to　say；　as　ideas　of　greater　or　less　elevation。　　However　great　or　true　an　idea　may　have　been　to　begin　with；　it　is　deprived　of　almost　all　that　which　constituted　its　elevation　and　its　greatness　by　the　mere　fact　that　it　has　come　within　the　intellectual　range　of　crowds　and　exerts　an　influence　upon　them。

Moreover；　from　the　social　point　of　view　the　hierarchical　value　of　an　idea；　its　intrinsic　worth；　is　without　importance。　　The　necessary　point　to　consider　is　the　effects　it　produces。　　The　Christian　ideas　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　democratic　ideas　of　the　last　century；　or　the　social　ideas　of　to…day　are　assuredly　not　very　elevated。　　Philosophically　considered；　they　can　only　be　regarded　as　somewhat　sorry　errors；　and　yet　their　power　has　been　and　will　be　immense；　and　they　will　count　for　a　long　time　to　come　among　the　most　essential　factors　that　determine　the　conduct　of　States。

Even　when　an　idea　has　undergone　the　transformations　which　render　it　accessible　to　crowds；　it　only　exerts　influence　when；　by　various　processes　which　we　shall　examine　elsewhere；　it　has　entered　the　domain　of　the　unconscious；　when　indeed　it　has　become　a　sentiment；　for　which　much　time　is　required。

For　it　must　not　be　supposed　that　merely　because　the　justness　of　an　idea　has　been　proved　it　can　be　productive　of　effective　action　even　on　cultivated　minds。　　This　fact　may　be　quickly　appreciated　by　noting　how　slight　is　the　influence　of　the　clearest　demonstration　on　the　majority　of　men。　　Evidence；　if　it　be　very　plain；　may　be　accepted　by　an　educated　person；　but　the　convert　will　be　quickly　brought　back　by　his　unconscious　self　to　his　original　conceptions。　　See　him　again　after　the　lapse　of　a　few　days　and　he　will　put　forward　afresh　his　old　arguments　in　exactly　the　same　terms。　　He　is　in　reality　under　the　influence　of　anterior　ideas；　that　have　become　sentiments；　and　it　is　such　ideas　alone　that　influence　the　more　recondite　motives　of　our　acts　and　utterances。　　It　cannot　be　otherwise　in　the　case　of　crowds。

When　by　various　processes　an　idea　has　ended　by　penetrating　into　the　minds　of　crowds；　it　possesses　an　irresistible　power；　and　brings　about　a　series　of　effects；　opposition　to　which　is　bootless。　　The　philosophical　ideas　which　resulted　in　the　French　Revolution　took　nearly　a　century　to　implant　themselves　in　the　mind　of　the　crowd。　　Their　irresistible　force；　when　once　they　had　taken　root；　is　known。　　The　striving　of　an　entire　nation　towards　the　conquest　of　social　equality；　and　the　realisation　of　abstract　rights　and　ideal　liberties；　caused　the　tottering　of　all　thrones　and　profoundly　disturbed　the　Western　world。　　During　twenty　years　the　nations　were　engaged　in　internecine　conflict；　and　Europe　witnessed　hecatombs　that　would　have　terrified　Ghengis　Khan　and　Tamerlane。　　The　world　had　never　seen　on　such　a　scale　what　may　result　from　the　promulgation　of　an　idea。

A　long　time　is　necessary　for　ideas　to　establish　themselves　in　the　minds　of　crowds；　but　just　as　long　a　time　is　needed　for　them　to　be　eradicated。　　For　this　reason　crowds；　as　far　as　ideas　are　concerned；　are　always　several　generations　behind　learned　men　and　philosophers。　　All　statesmen　are　well　aware　to…day　of　the　admixture　of　error　contained　in　the　fundamental　ideas　I　referred　to　a　short　while　back；　but　as　the　influence　of　these　ideas　is　still　very　powerful　they　are　obliged　to　govern　in　accordance　with　principles　in　the　truth　of　which　they　have　ceased　to　believe。


2。　THE　REASONING　POWER　OF　CROWDS


It　cannot　absolutely　be　said　that　crowds　do　not　reason　and　are　not　to　be　influenced　by　reasoning。

However；　the　arguments　they　employ　and　those　which　are　capable　of　influencing　them　are；　from　a　logical　point　of　view；　of　such　an　inferior　kind　that　it　is　only　by　way　of　analogy　that　they　can　be　described　as　reasoning。

The　inferior　reasoning　of　crowds　is　based；　just　as　is　reasoning　of　a　high　order；　on　the　association　of　ideas；　but　between　the　ideas　associated　by　crowds　there　are　only　apparent　bonds　of　analogy　or　succession。　　The　mode　of　reasoning　of　crowds　resembles　that　of　the　Esquimaux　who；　knowing　from　experience　that　ice；　a　transparent　body；　melts　in　the　mouth；　concludes　that　glass；　also　a　transparent　body；　should　also　melt　in　the　mouth；　or　that　of　the　savage　who　imagines　that　by　eating　the　heart　of　a　courageous　foe　he　acquires　his　bravery；　or　of　the　workman　who；　having　been　exploited　by　one　employer　of　labour；　immediately　concludes　that　all　employers　exploit　their　men。

The　characteristics　of　the　reasoning　of　crowds　are　the　association　of　dissimilar　things　possessing　a　merely　apparent　connection　between　each　other；　and　the　immediate　generalisation　of　particular　cases。　　It　is　arguments　of　this　kind　that　are　always　presented　to　crowds　by　those　who　know　how　to　manage　them。　They　are　the　only　arguments　by　which　crowds　are　to　be　influenced。　A　chain　of　logical　argumentation　is　totally　incomprehensible　to　crowds；　and　for　this　reason　it　is　permissible　to　say　that　they　do　not　reason　or　that　they　reason　falsely　and　are　not　to　be　influenced　by　reasoning。　　Astonishment　is　felt　at　times　on　reading　certain　speeches　at　their　weakness；　and　yet　they　had　an　enormous　influence　on　the　crowds　which　listened　to　them；　but　it　is　forgotten　that　they　were　intended　to　persuade　collectivities　and　not　to　be　read　by　philosophers。　　An　orator　in　intimate　communication　with　a　crowd　can　evoke　images　by　which　it　will　be　seduced。　　If　he　is　successful　his　object　has　been　attained；　and　twenty　volumes　of　haranguesalways　the　outcome　of　reflectionare　not　worth　the　few　phrases　which　appealed　to　the　brains　it　was　required　to　convince。

It　would　be　superfluous　to　add　that　the　powerlessness　of　crowds　to　reason　aright　prevents　them　displaying　any　trace　of　the　critical　spirit；　prevents　them；　that　is；　from　being　capable　of　discerning　truth　from　error；　or　of　forming　a　precise　judgment　on　any　matter。　　Judgments　accepted　by　crowds　are　merely　judgments　forced　upon　them　and　never　judgments　adopted　after　discussion。　In　regard　to　this　matter　the　individuals　who　do　not　rise　above　the　level　of　a　crowd　are　numerous。　　The　ease　with　which　certain　opinions　obtain　general　acceptance　results　more　especially　from　the　impossibility　experienced　by　the　majority　of　men　of　forming　an　opinion　peculiar　to　themselves　and　based　on　reasoning　of　their　own。


3。　THE　IMAGINATION　OF　CROWDS


Just　as　is　the　case　with　respect　to　persons　in　whom　the　reasoning　power　is　absent；　the　figurative　imagination　of　crowds　is　very　powerful；　very　active　and　very　susceptible　of　being　keenly　impressed。　　The　images　evoked　in　their　mind　by　a　personage；　an　event；　an　accident；　are　almost　as　lifelike　as　the　reality。　Crowds　are　to　some　extent　in　the　position　of　the　sleeper　whose　reason；　suspended　for　the　time　being；　allows　the　arousing　in　his　mind　of　images　of　extreme　intensity　which　would　quickly　be　dissipated　could　they　be　submitted　to　the　action　of　reflection。　Crowds；　being　incapable　both　of　reflection　and　of　reasoning；　are　devoid　of　the　notion　of　improbability；　and　it　is　to　be　noted　that　in　a　general　way　it　is　the　most　improbable　things　that　are　the　most　striking。

This　is　why　it　happens　that　it　is　always　the　marvellous　and　legendary　side　of　events　that　more　specially　strike　crowds。　　When　a　civilisation　is　analysed　it　is　seen　that；　in　reality；　it　is　the　marvellous　and　the　legendary　that　are　its　true　supports。　Appearances　have　always　played　a　much　more　important　part　than　reality　in　history；　where　the　unreal　is　always　of　greater　moment　than　the　real。

Crowds　being　only　capable　of　thinking　in　images　are　only　to　be　impressed　by　images。　　It　is　only　images　that　terrify　or　attract　them　and　become　motives　of　action。

For　this　reason　theatrical　representations；　in　which　the　image　is　shown　in　its　most　clearly　visible　shape；　always　have　an　enormous　influence　on　crowds。　　Bread　and　spectacular　shows　constituted　for　the　plebeians　of　ancient　Rome　the　ideal　of　happiness；　and　they　asked　for　nothing　more。　　Throughout　the　successive　ages　this　ideal　has　scarcely　varied。　　Nothing　has　a　greater　effect　on　the　imagination　of　crowds　of　every　category　than　theatrical　representations。　　The　entire　audience　experiences　at　the　same　time　the　same　emotions；　and　if　these　emotions　are　not　at　once　transformed　into　acts；　it　is　because　the　most　unconscious　spectator　cannot　ignore　that　he　is　the　victim　of　illusions；　and　that　he　has　laughed　or　wept　over　imaginary　adventures。　Sometimes；　however；　the　sentiments　suggested　by　the　images　are　so　strong　that　they　tend；　like　habitual　suggestions；　to　transform　themselves　into　acts。　　The　story　has　often　been　told　of　the　manager　of　a　popular　theatre　who；　in　consequence　of　his　only　playing　sombre　dramas；　was　obliged　to　have　the　actor　who　took　the　part　of　the　traitor　protected　on　his　leaving　the　theatre；　to　defend　him　against　the　violence　of　the　spectators；　indignant　at　the　crimes；　imaginary　though　they　were；　which　the　traitor　had　committed。　　We　have　here；　in　my　opinion；　one　of　the　most　remarkable　indications　of　the　mental　state　of　crowds；　and　especially　of　the　faci