the crowd-第21章

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　examples　in　point　are　the　theories　which　mould　literature　and　the　artsthose；　for　instance；　which　produced　romanticism；　naturalism；　mysticism；　&c。　　Opinions　of　this　order　are　as　superficial；　as　a　rule；　as　fashion；　and　as　changeable。　　They　may　be　compared　to　the　ripples　which　ceaselessly　arise　and　vanish　on　the　surface　of　a　deep　lake。

The　great　generalised　beliefs　are　very　restricted　in　number。　Their　rise　and　fall　form　the　culminating　points　of　the　history　of　every　historic　race。　　They　constitute　the　real　framework　of　civilisation。

It　is　easy　to　imbue　the　mind　of　crowds　with　a　passing　opinion；　but　very　difficult　to　implant　therein　a　lasting　belief。　　However；　a　belief　of　this　latter　description　once　established；　it　is　equally　difficult　to　uproot　it。　　It　is　usually　only　to　be　changed　at　the　cost　of　violent　revolutions。　　Even　revolutions　can　only　avail　when　the　belief　has　almost　entirely　lost　its　sway　over　men's　minds。　　In　that　case　revolutions　serve　to　finally　sweep　away　what　had　already　been　almost　cast　aside；　though　the　force　of　habit　prevented　its　complete　abandonment。　　The　beginning　of　a　revolution　is　in　reality　the　end　of　a　belief。

The　precise　moment　at　which　a　great　belief　is　doomed　is　easily　recognisable；　it　is　the　moment　when　its　value　begins　to　be　called　in　question。　　Every　general　belief　being　little　else　than　a　fiction；　it　can　only　survive　on　the　condition　that　it　be　not　subjected　to　examination。

But　even　when　a　belief　is　severely　shaken；　the　institutions　to　which　it　has　given　rise　retain　their　strength　and　disappear　but　slowly。　　Finally；　when　the　belief　has　completely　lost　its　force；　all　that　rested　upon　it　is　soon　involved　in　ruin。　　As　yet　a　nation　has　never　been　able　to　change　its　beliefs　without　being　condemned　at　the　same　time　to　transform　all　the　elements　of　its　civilisation。　　The　nation　continues　this　process　of　transformation　until　it　has　alighted　on　and　accepted　a　new　general　belief：　until　this　juncture　it　is　perforce　in　a　state　of　anarchy。　　General　beliefs　are　the　indispensable　pillars　of　civilisations；　they　determine　the　trend　of　ideas。　　They　alone　are　capable　of　inspiring　faith　and　creating　a　sense　of　duty。

Nations　have　always　been　conscious　of　the　utility　of　acquiring　general　beliefs；　and　have　instinctively　understood　that　their　disappearance　would　be　the　signal　for　their　own　decline。　　In　the　case　of　the　Romans；　the　fanatical　cult　of　Rome　was　the　belief　that　made　them　masters　of　the　world；　and　when　the　belief　had　died　out　Rome　was　doomed　to　die。　　As　for　the　barbarians　who　destroyed　the　Roman　civilisation；　it　was　only　when　they　had　acquired　certain　commonly　accepted　beliefs　that　they　attained　a　measure　of　cohesion　and　emerged　from　anarchy。

Plainly　it　is　not　for　nothing　that　nations　have　always　displayed　intolerance　in　the　defence　of　their　opinions。　　This　intolerance；　open　as　it　is　to　criticism　from　the　philosophic　standpoint；　represents　in　the　life　of　a　people　the　most　necessary　of　virtues。　It　was　to　found　or　uphold　general　beliefs　that　so　many　victims　were　sent　to　the　stake　in　the　Middle　Ages　and　that　so　many　inventors　and　innovators　have　died　in　despair　even　if　they　have　escaped　martyrdom。　　It　is　in　defence；　too；　of　such　beliefs　that　the　world　has　been　so　often　the　scene　of　the　direst　disorder；　and　that　so　many　millions　of　men　have　died　on　the　battlefield；　and　will　yet　die　there。

There　are　great　difficulties　in　the　way　of　establishing　a　general　belief；　but　when　it　is　definitely　implanted　its　power　is　for　a　long　time　to　come　invincible；　and　however　false　it　be　philosophically　it　imposes　itself　upon　the　most　luminous　intelligence。　　Have　not　the　European　peoples　regarded　as　incontrovertible　for　more　than　fifteen　centuries　religious　legends　which；　closely　examined；　are　as　barbarous＇21＇　as　those　of　Moloch？　　The　frightful　absurdity　of　the　legend　of　a　God　who　revenges　himself　for　the　disobedience　of　one　of　his　creatures　by　inflicting　horrible　tortures　on　his　son　remained　unperceived　during　many　centuries。　　Such　potent　geniuses　as　a　Galileo；　a　Newton；　and　a　Leibnitz　never　supposed　for　an　instant　that　the　truth　of　such　dogmas　could　be　called　in　question。　　Nothing　can　be　more　typical　than　this　fact　of　the　hypnotising　effect　of　general　beliefs；　but　at　the　same　time　nothing　can　mark　more　decisively　the　humiliating　limitations　of　our　intelligence。


＇21＇　Barbarous；　philosophically　speaking；　I　mean。　　In　practice　they　have　created　an　entirely　new　civilisation；　and　for　fifteen　centuries　have　given　mankind　a　glimpse　of　those　enchanted　realms　of　generous　dreams　and　of　hope　which　he　will　know　no　more。



As　soon　as　a　new　dogma　is　implanted　in　the　mind　of　crowds　it　becomes　the　source　of　inspiration　whence　are　evolved　its　institutions；　arts；　and　mode　of　existence。　　The　sway　it　exerts　over　men's　minds　under　these　circumstances　is　absolute。　　Men　of　action　have　no　thought　beyond　realising　the　accepted　belief；　legislators　beyond　applying　it；　while　philosophers；　artists；　and　men　of　letters　are　solely　preoccupied　with　its　expression　under　various　shapes。

From　the　fundamental　belief　transient　accessory　ideas　may　arise；　but　they　always　bear　the　impress　of　the　belief　from　which　they　have　sprung。　　The　Egyptian　civilisation；　the　European　civilisation　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　Mussulman　civilisation　of　the　Arabs　are　all　the　outcome　of　a　small　number　of　religious　beliefs　which　have　left　their　mark　on　the　least　important　elements　of　these　civilisations　and　allow　of　their　immediate　recognition。

Thus　it　is　that；　thanks　to　general　beliefs；　the　men　of　every　age　are　enveloped　in　a　network　of　traditions；　opinions；　and　customs　which　render　them　all　alike；　and　from　whose　yoke　they　cannot　extricate　themselves。　　Men　are　guided　in　their　conduct　above　all　by　their　beliefs　and　by　the　customs　that　are　the　consequence　of　those　beliefs。　　These　beliefs　and　customs　regulate　the　smallest　acts　of　our　existence；　and　the　most　independent　spirit　cannot　escape　their　influence。　　The　tyranny　exercised　unconsciously　on　men's　minds　is　the　only　real　tyranny；　because　it　cannot　be　fought　against。　　Tiberius；　Ghengis　Khan；　and　Napoleon　were　assuredly　redoubtable　tyrants；　but　from　the　depth　of　their　graves　Moses；　Buddha；　Jesus；　and　Mahomet　have　exerted　on　the　human　soul　a　far　profounder　despotism。　　A　conspiracy　may　overthrow　a　tyrant；　but　what　can　it　avail　against　a　firmly　established　belief？　　In　its　violent　struggle　with　Roman　Catholicism　it　is　the　French　Revolution　that　has　been　vanquished；　and　this　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　the　sympathy　of　the　crowd　was　apparently　on　its　side；　and　in　spite　of　recourse　to　destructive　measures　as　pitiless　as　those　of　the　Inquisition。　　The　only　real　tyrants　that　humanity　has　known　have　always　been　the　memories　of　its　dead　or　the　illusions　it　has　forged　itself。

The　philosophic　absurdity　that　often　marks　general　beliefs　has　never　been　an　obstacle　to　their　triumph。　　Indeed　the　triumph　of　such　beliefs　would　seem　impossible　unless　on　the　condition　that　they　offer　some　mysterious　absurdity。　　In　consequence；　the　evident　weakness　of　the　socialist　beliefs　of　to…day　will　not　prevent　them　triumphing　among　the　masses。　　Their　real　inferiority　to　all　religious　beliefs　is　solely　the　result　of　this　consideration；　that　the　ideal　of　happiness　offered　by　the　latter　being　realisable　only　in　a　future　life；　it　was　beyond　the　power　of　anybody　to　contest　it。　　The　socialist　ideal　of　happiness　being　intended　to　be　realised　on　earth；　the　vanity　of　its　promises　will　at　once　appear　as　soon　as　the　first　efforts　towards　their　realisation　are　made；　and　simultaneously　the　new　belief　will　entirely　lose　its　prestige。　　Its　strength；　in　consequence；　will　only　increase　until　the　day　when；　having　triumphed；　its　practical　realisation　shall　commence。　　For　this　reason；　while　the　new　religion　exerts　to　begin　with；　like　all　those　that　have　preceded　it；　a　destructive　influence；　it　will　be　unable；　in　the　future；　to　play　a　creative　part。


2。　THE　CHANGEABLE　OPINIONS　OF　CROWDS


Above　the　substratum　of　fixed　beliefs；　whose　power　we　have　just　demonstrated；　is　found　an　overlying　growth　of　opinions；　ideas；　and　thoughts　which　are　incessantly　springing　up　and　dying　out。　Some　of　them　exist　but　for　a　day；　and　the　more　important　scarcely　outlive　a　generation。　　We　have　already　noted　that　the　changes　which　supervene　in　opinions　of　this　order　are　at　times　far　more　superficial　than　real；　and　that　they　are　always　affected　by　racial　considerations。　　When　examining；　for　instance；　the　political　institutions　of　France　we　showed　that　parties　to　all　appearance　utterly　distinctroyalists；　radicals；　imperialists；　socialists；　&c。have　an　ideal　absolutely　identical；　and　that　this　ideal　is　solely　dependent　on　the　mental　structure　of　the　French　race；　since　a　quite　contrary　ideal　is　found　under　analogous　names　among　other　races。　　Neither　the　name　given　to　opinions　nor　deceptive　adaptations　alter　the　essence　of　things。　The　men　of　the　Great　Revolution；　saturated　with　Latin　literature；　who　（their　eyes　fixed　on　the　Roman　Republic）；　adopted　its　laws；　its　fasces；　and　its　togas；　did　not　become　Romans　because　they　were　under　the　empire　of　a　powerful　historical　suggestion。　　The　task　of　the　philosopher　is　to　investigate　what　it　is　which　subsists　of　ancient　beliefs　beneath　their　apparent　changes；　and　to　identify　amid　the　moving　flux　of　opinions　the　part　determined　by　general　beliefs　and　the　genius　of　the　race。

In　the　absence　of　this　philosophic　test　it　might　be　supposed　that　crowds　change　their　political　or　religious　beliefs　frequently　and　at　will。　　All　history；　whether　political；　religious；　artistic；　or　literary；　seems　to　prove　that　such　is　the　case。

As　an　example；　let　us　take　a　very　short　period　of　French　history；　merely　that　from　1790　to　1820；　a　period　of　thirty　years'　duration；　that　of　a　generation。　　In　the　course　of　it　we　see　the　crowd　at　first　monarchical　become　very　revolutionary；　then　very　imperialist；　and　again　very　monarchical。　　In　the　matter　of　religion　it　gravitates　in　the　same　lapse　of　time　from　Catholicism　to　atheism；　then　towards　deism；　and　then　returns　to　the　most　pronounced　forms　of　Catholicism。　　These　changes　take　place　not　only　amongst　the　masses；　but　also　amongst　those　who　direct　them。　We　observe　with　astonishment　the　prominent　men　of　the　Convention；　the　sworn　enemies　of　kings；　men　who　would　have　neither　gods　nor　masters；　become　the　humble　servants　of　Napoleon；　and　afterwards；　under　Louis　XVIII。；　piously　carry　candles　in　religious　processions。

Numerous；　too；　are　the　changes　in　the　opinions　of　the　crowd　in　the　course　of　the　following　seventy　years。　　The　〃Perfidious　Albion〃　of　the　opening　of　the　century　is　the　ally　of　France　under　Napoleon's　heir；　Russia；　twice　invaded　by　France；　which　looked　on　with　satisfaction　at　French　reverses；　becomes　its　friend。

In　literature；　art；　and　philosophy　the　successive　evolutions　of　opinion　are　more　rapid　still。　　Romanticism；　naturalism；　mysticism；　&c。；　spring　up　and　die　out　in　turn。　　The　artist　and　the　writer　applauded　yesterday　are　treated　on　the　morrow　with　profound　contempt。

When；　however；　we　analyse　all　these　changes　in　appearance　so　far　reaching；　what　do　we　find？　　All　those　that　are　in　opposition　with　the　general　beliefs　and　sentiments　of　the　race　are　of　transient　duration；　and　the　diverted　stream　soon　resumes　its　course。　　The　opinio