the crowd-第20章

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without　bloodshed；　in　upsetting　all　organised　authority　in　France　under　its　legitimate　king；　is　it　possible　for　the　personal　ascendency　of　a　man　to　affirm　itself　in　a　more　astonishing　manner？　　But　from　the　beginning　to　the　end　of　this　campaign；　which　was　his　last；　how　remarkable　too　is　the　ascendency　he　exercised　over　the　Allies；　obliging　them　to　follow　his　initiative；　and　how　near　he　came　to　crushing　them！〃


His　prestige　outlived　him　and　continued　to　grow。　　It　is　his　prestige　that　made　an　emperor　of　his　obscure　nephew。　　How　powerful　is　his　memory　still　is　seen　in　the　resurrection　of　his　legend　in　progress　at　the　present　day。　　Ill…treat　men　as　you　will；　massacre　them　by　millions；　be　the　cause　of　invasion　upon　invasion；　all　is　permitted　you　if　you　possess　prestige　in　a　sufficient　degree　and　the　talent　necessary　to　uphold　it。

I　have　invoked；　no　doubt；　in　this　case　a　quite　exceptional　example　of　prestige；　but　one　it　was　useful　to　cite　to　make　clear　the　genesis　of　great　religions；　great　doctrines；　and　great　empires。　　Were　it　not　for　the　power　exerted　on　the　crowd　by　prestige；　such　growths　would　be　incomprehensible。

Prestige；　however；　is　not　based　solely　on　personal　ascendency；　military　glory；　and　religious　terror；　it　may　have　a　more　modest　origin　and　still　be　considerable。　　Our　century　furnishes　several　examples。　　One　of　the　most　striking　ones　that　posterity　will　recall　from　age　to　age　will　be　supplied　by　the　history　of　the　illustrious　man　who　modified　the　face　of　the　globe　and　the　commercial　relations　of　the　nations　by　separating　two　continents。　He　succeeded　in　his　enterprise　owing　to　his　immense　strength　of　will；　but　also　owing　to　the　fascination　he　exercised　on　those　surrounding　him。　　To　overcome　the　unanimous　opposition　he　met　with；　he　had　only　to　show　himself。　　He　would　speak　briefly；　and　in　face　of　the　charm　he　exerted　his　opponents　became　his　friends。　The　English　in　particular　strenuously　opposed　his　scheme；　he　had　only　to　put　in　an　appearance　in　England　to　rally　all　suffrages。　In　later　years；　when　he　passed　Southampton；　the　bells　were　rung　on　his　passage；　and　at　the　present　day　a　movement　is　on　foot　in　England　to　raise　a　statue　in　his　honour。

〃Having　vanquished　whatever　there　is　to　vanquish；　men　and　things；　marshes；　rocks；　and　sandy　wastes；〃　he　had　ceased　to　believe　in　obstacles；　and　wished　to　begin　Suez　over　again　at　Panama。　　He　began　again　with　the　same　methods　as　of　old；　but　he　had　aged；　and；　besides；　the　faith　that　moves　mountains　does　not　move　them　if　they　are　too　lofty。　　The　mountains　resisted；　and　the　catastrophe　that　ensued　destroyed　the　glittering　aureole　of　glory　that　enveloped　the　hero。　　His　life　teaches　how　prestige　can　grow　and　how　it　can　vanish。　　After　rivalling　in　greatness　the　most　famous　heroes　of　history；　he　was　lowered　by　the　magistrates　of　his　country　to　the　ranks　of　the　vilest　criminals。　　When　he　died　his　coffin；　unattended；　traversed　an　indifferent　crowd。　　Foreign　sovereigns　are　alone　in　rendering　homage　to　his　memory　as　to　that　of　one　of　the　greatest　men　that　history　has　known。＇20＇


＇20＇　An　Austrian　paper；　the　Neue　Freie　Presse；　of　Vienna；　has　indulged　on　the　subject　of　the　destiny　of　de　Lesseps　in　reflections　marked　by　a　most　judicious　psychological　insight。　　I　therefore　reproduce　them　here：

〃After　the　condemnation　of　Ferdinand　de　Lesseps　one　has　no　longer　the　right　to　be　astonished　at　the　sad　end　of　Christopher　Columbus。　　If　Ferdinand　de　Lesseps　were　a　rogue　every　noble　illusion　is　a　crime。　　Antiquity　would　have　crowned　the　memory　of　de　Lesseps　with　an　aureole　of　glory；　and　would　have　made　him　drink　from　the　bowl　of　nectar　in　the　midst　of　Olympus；　for　he　has　altered　the　face　of　the　earth　and　accomplished　works　which　make　the　creation　more　perfect。　　The　President　of　the　Court　of　Appeal　has　immortalised　himself　by　condemning　Ferdinand　de　Lesseps；　for　the　nations　will　always　demand　the　name　of　the　man　who　was　not　afraid　to　debase　his　century　by　investing　with　the　convict's　cap　an　aged　man；　whose　life　redounded　to　the　glory　of　his　contemporaries。

〃Let　there　be　no　more　talk　in　the　future　of　inflexible　justice；　there　where　reigns　a　bureaucratic　hatred　of　audacious　feats。　　The　nations　have　need　of　audacious　men　who　believe　in　themselves　and　overcome　every　obstacle　without　concern　for　their　personal　safety。　　Genius　cannot　be　prudent；　by　dint　of　prudence　it　could　never　enlarge　the　sphere　of　human　activity。

〃。　。　。　Ferdinand　de　Lesseps　has　known　the　intoxication　of　triumph　and　the　bitterness　of　disappointmentSuez　and　Panama。　　At　this　point　the　heart　revolts　at　the　morality　of　success。　　When　de　Lesseps　had　succeeded　in　joining　two　seas　princes　and　nations　rendered　him　their　homage；　to…day；　when　he　meets　with　failure　among　the　rocks　of　the　Cordilleras；　he　is　nothing　but　a　vulgar　rogue。　。　。　。　　In　this　result　we　see　a　war　between　the　classes　of　society；　the　discontent　of　bureaucrats　and　employes；　who　take　their　revenge　with　the　aid　of　the　criminal　code　on　those　who　would　raise　themselves　above　their　fellows。　。　。　。　　Modern　legislators　are　filled　with　embarrassment　when　confronted　by　the　lofty　ideas　due　to　human　genius；　the　public　comprehends　such　ideas　still　less；　and　it　is　easy　for　an　advocate…general　to　prove　that　Stanley　is　a　murderer　and　de　Lesseps　a　deceiver。〃



Still；　the　various　examples　that　have　just　been　cited　represent　extreme　cases。　　To　fix　in　detail　the　psychology　of　prestige；　it　would　be　necessary　to　place　them　at　the　extremity　of　a　series；　which　would　range　from　the　founders　of　religions　and　empires　to　the　private　individual　who　endeavours　to　dazzle　his　neighbours　by　a　new　coat　or　a　decoration。

Between　the　extreme　limits　of　this　series　would　find　a　place　all　the　forms　of　prestige　resulting　from　the　different　elements　composing　a　civilisationsciences；　arts；　literature；　&c。and　it　would　be　seen　that　prestige　constitutes　the　fundamental　element　of　persuasion。　　Consciously　or　not；　the　being；　the　idea；　or　the　thing　possessing　prestige　is　immediately　imitated　in　consequence　of　contagion；　and　forces　an　entire　generation　to　adopt　certain　modes　of　feeling　and　of　giving　expression　to　its　thought。　　This　imitation；　moreover；　is；　as　a　rule；　unconscious；　which　accounts　for　the　fact　that　it　is　perfect。　　The　modern　painters　who　copy　the　pale　colouring　and　the　stiff　attitudes　of　some　of　the　Primitives　are　scarcely　alive　to　the　source　of　their　inspiration。　They　believe　in　their　own　sincerity；　whereas；　if　an　eminent　master　had　not　revived　this　form　of　art；　people　would　have　continued　blind　to　all　but　its　naive　and　inferior　sides。　　Those　artists　who；　after　the　manner　of　another　illustrious　master；　inundate　their　canvasses　with　violet　shades　do　not　see　in　nature　more　violet　than　was　detected　there　fifty　years　ago；　but　they　are　influenced；　〃suggestioned；〃　by　the　personal　and　special　impressions　of　a　painter　who；　in　spite　of　this　eccentricity；　was　successful　in　acquiring　great　prestige。　　Similar　examples　might　be　brought　forward　in　connection　with　all　the　elements　of　civilisation。

It　is　seen　from　what　precedes　that　a　number　of　factors　may　be　concerned　in　the　genesis　of　prestige；　among　them　success　was　always　one　of　the　most　important。　　Every　successful　man；　every　idea　that　forces　itself　into　recognition；　ceases；　ipso　facto；　to　be　called　in　question。　　The　proof　that　success　is　one　of　the　principal　stepping…stones　to　prestige　is　that　the　disappearance　of　the　one　is　almost　always　followed　by　the　disappearance　of　the　other。　　The　hero　whom　the　crowd　acclaimed　yesterday　is　insulted　to…day　should　he　have　been　overtaken　by　failure。　　The　reaction；　indeed；　will　be　the　stronger　in　proportion　as　the　prestige　has　been　great。　　The　crowd　in　this　case　considers　the　fallen　hero　as　an　equal；　and　takes　its　revenge　for　having　bowed　to　a　superiority　whose　existence　it　no　longer　admits。　　While　Robespierre　was　causing　the　execution　of　his　colleagues　and　of　a　great　number　of　his　contemporaries；　he　possessed　an　immense　prestige。　　When　the　transposition　of　a　few　votes　deprived　him　of　power；　he　immediately　lost　his　prestige；　and　the　crowd　followed　him　to　the　guillotine　with　the　self…same　imprecations　with　which　shortly　before　it　had　pursued　his　victims。　　Believers　always　break　the　statues　of　their　former　gods　with　every　symptom　of　fury。

Prestige　lost　by　want　of　success　disappears　in　a　brief　space　of　time。　　It　can　also　be　worn　away；　but　more　slowly　by　being　subjected　to　discussion。　　This　latter　power；　however；　is　exceedingly　sure。　　From　the　moment　prestige　is　called　in　question　it　ceases　to　be　prestige。　　The　gods　and　men　who　have　kept　their　prestige　for　long　have　never　tolerated　discussion。　　For　the　crowd　to　admire；　it　must　be　kept　at　a　distance。


CHAPTER　IV

LIMITATIONS　OF　THE　VARIABILITY　OF　THE　BELIEFS　AND　OPINIONS　OF　CROWDS

1。　FIXED　BELIEFS。　The　invariability　of　certain　general　beliefsThey　shape　the　course　of　a　civilisationThe　difficulty　of　uprooting　themIn　what　respect　intolerance　is　a　virtue　in　a　peopleThe　philosophic　absurdity　of　a　belief　cannot　interfere　with　its　spreading。　　　2。　THE　CHANGEABLE　OPINIONS　OF　CROWDS。　The　extreme　mobility　of　opinions　which　do　not　arise　from　general　beliefsApparent　variations　of　ideas　and　beliefs　in　less　than　a　centuryThe　real　limits　of　these　variationsThe　matters　effected　by　the　variationThe　disappearance　at　present　in　progress　of　general　beliefs；　and　the　extreme　diffusion　of　the　newspaper　press；　have　for　result　that　opinions　are　nowadays　more　and　more　changeableWhy　the　opinions　of　crowds　tend　on　the　majority　of　subjects　towards　indifferenceGovernments　now　powerless　to　direct　opinion　as　they　formerly　didOpinions　prevented　to…day　from　being　tyrannical　on　account　of　their　exceeding　divergency。


1。　FIXED　BELIEFS

A　close　parallel　exists　between　the　anatomical　and　psychological　characteristics　of　living　beings。　In　these　anatomical　characteristics　certain　invariable；　or　slightly　variable；　elements　are　met　with；　to　change　which　the　lapse　is　necessary　of　geological　ages。　　Side　by　side　with　these　fixed；　indestructible　features　are　to　be　found　others　extremely　changeable；　which　the　art　of　the　breeder　or　horticulturist　may　easily　modify；　and　at　times　to　such　an　extent　as　to　conceal　the　fundamental　characteristics　from　an　observer　at　all　inattentive。

The　same　phenomenon　is　observed　in　the　case　of　moral　characteristics。　　Alongside　the　unalterable　psychological　elements　of　a　race；　mobile　and　changeable　elements　are　to　be　encountered。　　For　this　reason；　in　studying　the　beliefs　and　opinions　of　a　people；　the　presence　is　always　detected　of　a　fixed　groundwork　on　which　are　engrafted　opinions　as　changing　as　the　surface　sand　on　a　rock。

The　opinions　and　beliefs　of　crowds　may　be　divided；　then；　into　two　very　distinct　classes。　　On　the　one　hand　we　have　great　permanent　beliefs；　which　endure　for　several　centuries；　and　on　which　an　entire　civilisation　may　rest。　　Such；　for　instance；　in　the　past　were　feudalism；　Christianity；　and　Protestantism；　and　such；　in　our　own　time；　are　the　nationalist　principle　and　contemporary　democratic　and　social　ideas。　　In　the　second　place；　there　are　the　transitory；　changing　opinions；　the　outcome；　as　a　rule；　of　general　conceptions；　of　which　every　age　sees　the　birth　and　disappearance；　examples　in　point　are　the　theories　which　mould　literature　and　the　artsthose；　for　instance；　which　pr