democracy in america-1-第53章

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ublic；　and　we　ought　carefully　to　distinguish　that　economy　which　depends　upon　their　institutions　from　that　which　is　the　natural　result　of　their　manners　and　customs。

Whether　The　Expenditure　Of　The　United　States　Can　Be　Compared　To　That　Of　France

Two　points　to　be　established　in　order　to　estimate　the　extent　of　the　public　charges；　viz。；　the　national　wealth　and　the　rate　of　taxation　…　The　wealth　and　the　charges　of　France　not　accurately　known　…　Why　the　wealth　and　charges　of　the　Union　cannot　be　accurately　known　…　Researches　of　the　author　with　a　view　to　discover　the　amount　of　taxation　of　Pennsylvania　…　General　symptoms　which　may　serve　to　indicate　the　amount　of　the　public　charges　in　a　given　nation　…　Result　of　this　investigation　for　the　Union。

Many　attempts　have　recently　been　made　in　France　to　compare　the　public　expenditure　of　that　country　with　the　expenditure　of　the　United　States；　all　these　attempts　have；　however；　been　unattended　by　success；　and　a　few　words　will　suffice　to　show　that　they　could　not　have　had　a　satisfactory　result。


In　order　to　estimate　the　amount　of　the　public　charges　of　a　people　two　preliminaries　are　indispensable：　it　is　necessary；　in　the　first　place；　to　know　the　wealth　of　that　people；　and　in　the　second；　to　learn　what　portion　of　that　wealth　is　devoted　to　the　expenditure　of　the　State。　　To　show　the　amount　of　taxation　without　showing　the　resources　which　are　destined　to　meet　the　demand；　is　to　undertake　a　futile　labor；　for　it　is　not　the　expenditure；　but　the　relation　of　the　expenditure　to　the　revenue；　which　it　is　desirable　to　know。　

The　same　rate　of　taxation　which　may　easily　be　supported　by　a　wealthy　contributor　will　reduce　a　poor　one　to　extreme　misery。　　The　wealth　of　nations　is　composed　of　several　distinct　elements；　of　which　population　is　the　first；　real　property　the　second；　and　personal　property　the　third。　　The　first　of　these　three　elements　may　be　discovered　without　difficulty。　　Amongst　civilized　nations　it　is　easy　to　obtain　an　accurate　census　of　the　inhabitants；　but　the　two　others　cannot　be　determined　with　so　much　facility。　　It　is　difficult　to　take　an　exact　account　of　all　the　lands　in　a　country　which　are　under　cultivation；　with　their　natural　or　their　acquired　value；　and　it　is　still　more　impossible　to　estimate　the　entire　personal　property　which　is　at　the　disposal　of　a　nation；　and　which　eludes　the　strictest　analysis　by　the　diversity　and　the　number　of　shapes　under　which　it　may　occur。　　And；　indeed；　we　find　that　the　most　ancient　civilized　nations　of　Europe；　including　even　those　in　which　the　administration　is　most　central；　have　not　succeeded；　as　yet；　in　determining　the　exact　condition　of　their　wealth。

In　America　the　attempt　has　never　been　made；　for　how　would　such　an　investigation　be　possible　in　a　country　where　society　has　not　yet　settled　into　habits　of　regularity　and　tranquillity；　where　the　national　Government　is　not　assisted　by　a　multiple　of　agents　whose　exertions　it　can　command　and　direct　to　one　sole　end；　and　where　statistics　are　not　studied；　because　no　one　is　able　to　collect　the　necessary　documents；　or　to　find　time　to　peruse　them？　　Thus　the　primary　elements　of　the　calculations　which　have　been　made　in　France　cannot　be　obtained　in　the　Union；　the　relative　wealth　of　the　two　countries　is　unknown；　the　property　of　the　former　is　not　accurately　determined；　and　no　means　exist　of　computing　that　of　the　latter。　

I　consent；　therefore；　for　the　sake　of　the　discussion；　to　abandon　this　necessary　term　of　the　comparison；　and　I　confine　myself　to　a　computation　of　the　actual　amount　of　taxation；　without　investigating　the　relation　which　subsists　between　the　taxation　and　the　revenue。　　But　the　reader　will　perceive　that　my　task　has　not　been　facilitated　by　the　limits　which　I　here　lay　down　for　my　researches。

It　cannot　be　doubted　that　the　central　administration　of　France；　assisted　by　all　the　public　officers　who　are　at　its　disposal；　might　determine　with　exactitude　the　amount　of　the　direct　and　indirect　taxes　levied　upon　the　citizens。　　But　this　investigation；　which　no　private　individual　can　undertake；　has　not　hitherto　been　completed　by　the　French　Government；　or；　at　least；　its　results　have　not　been　made　public。　　We　are　acquainted　with　the　sum　total　of　the　charges　of　the　State；　we　know　the　amount　of　the　departmental　expenditure；　but　the　expenses　of　the　communal　divisions　have　not　been　computed；　and　the　amount　of　the　public　expenses　of　France　is　consequently　unknown。

If　we　now　turn　to　America；　we　shall　perceive　that　the　difficulties　are　multiplied　and　enhanced。　　The　Union　publishes　an　exact　return　of　the　amount　of　its　expenditure；　the　budgets　of　the　four　and　twenty　States　furnish　similar　returns　of　their　revenues；　but　the　expenses　incident　to　the　affairs　of　the　counties　and　the　townships　are　unknown。　*k

＇Footnote　k：　The　Americans；　as　we　have　seen；　have　four　separate　budgets；　the　Union；　the　States；　the　Counties；　and　the　Townships　having　each　severally　their　own。　　During　my　stay　in　America　I　made　every　endeavor　to　discover　the　amount　of　the　public　expenditure　in　the　townships　and　counties　of　the　principal　States　of　the　Union；　and　I　readily　obtained　the　budget　of　the　larger　townships；　but　I　found　it　quite　impossible　to　procure　that　of　the　smaller　ones。　　I　possess；　however；　some　documents　relating　to　county　expenses；　which；　although　incomplete；　are　still　curious。　　I　have　to　thank　Mr。　Richards；　Mayor　of　Philadelphia；　for　the　budgets　of　thirteen　of　the　counties　of　Pennsylvania；　viz。；　Lebanon；　Centre；　Franklin；　Fayette；　Montgomery；　Luzerne；　Dauphin；　Butler；　Alleghany；　Columbia；　Northampton；　Northumberland；　and　Philadelphia；　for　the　year　1830。　　Their　population　at　that　time　consisted　of　495；207　inhabitants。　　On　looking　at　the　map　of　Pennsylvania；　it　will　be　seen　that　these　thirteen　counties　are　scattered　in　every　direction；　and　so　generally　affected　by　the　causes　which　usually　influence　the　condition　of　a　country；　that　they　may　easily　be　supposed　to　furnish　a　correct　average　of　the　financial　state　of　the　counties　of　Pennsylvania　in　general；　and　thus；　upon　reckoning　that　the　expenses　of　these　counties　amounted　in　the　year　1830　to　about　361；650；　or　nearly　75　cents　for　each　inhabitant；　and　calculating　that　each　of　them　contributed　in　the　same　year　about　2。55　towards　the　Union；　and　about　75　cents　to　the　State　of　Pennsylvania；　it　appears　that　they　each　contributed　as　their　share　of　all　the　public　expenses　（except　those　of　the　townships）　the　sum　of　4。05。　　This　calculation　is　doubly　incomplete；　as　it　applies　only　to　a　single　year　and　to　one　part　of　the　public　charges；　but　it　has　at　least　the　merit　of　not　being　conjectural。＇

The　authority　of　the　Federal　government　cannot　oblige　the　provincial　governments　to　throw　any　light　upon　this　point；　and　even　if　these　governments　were　inclined　to　afford　their　simultaneous　co…　operation；　it　may　be　doubted　whether　they　possess　the　means　of　procuring　a　satisfactory　answer。　Independently　of　the　natural　difficulties　of　the　task；　the　political　organization　of　the　country　would　act　as　a　hindrance　to　the　success　of　their　efforts。　　The　county　and　town　magistrates　are　not　appointed　by　the　authorities　of　the　State；　and　they　are　not　subjected　to　their　control。　　It　is　therefore　very　allowable　to　suppose　that；　if　the　State　was　desirous　of　obtaining　the　returns　which　we　require；　its　design　would　be　counteracted　by　the　neglect　of　those　subordinate　officers　whom　it　would　be　obliged　to　employ。　*l　It　is；　in　point　of　fact；　useless　to　inquire　what　the　Americans　might　do　to　forward　this　inquiry；　since　it　is　certain　that　they　have　hitherto　done　nothing　at　all。　There　does　not　exist　a　single　individual　at　the　present　day；　in　America　or　in　Europe；　who　can　inform　us　what　each　citizen　of　the　Union　annually　contributes　to　the　public　charges　of　the　nation。　*m　　＇Footnote　l：　Those　who　have　attempted　to　draw　a　comparison　between　the　expenses　of　France　and　America　have　at　once　perceived　that　no　such　comparison　could　be　drawn　between　the　total　expenditure　of　the　two　countries；　but　they　have　endeavored　to　contrast　detached　portions　of　this　expenditure。　　It　may　readily　be　shown　that　this　second　system　is　not　at　all　less　defective　than　the　first。　　If　I　attempt　to　compare　the　French　budget　with　the　budget　of　the　Union；　it　must　be　remembered　that　the　latter　embraces　much　fewer　objects　than　then　central　Government　of　the　former　country；　and　that　the　expenditure　must　consequently　be　much　smaller。　　If　I　contrast　the　budgets　of　the　Departments　with　those　of　the　States　which　constitute　the　Union；　it　must　be　observed　that；　as　the　power　and　control　exercised　by　the　States　is　much　greater　than　that　which　is　exercised　by　the　Departments；　their　expenditure　is　also　more　considerable。　　As　for　the　budgets　of　the　counties；　nothing　of　the　kind　occurs　in　the　French　system　of　finances；　and　it　is；　again；　doubtful　whether　the　corresponding　expenses　should　be　referred　to　the　budget　of　the　State　or　to　those　of　the　municipal　divisions。　　Municipal　expenses　exist　in　both　countries；　but　they　are　not　always　analogous。　　In　America　the　townships　discharge　a　variety　of　offices　which　are　reserved　in　France　to　the　Departments　or　to　the　State。　　It　may；　moreover；　be　asked　what　is　to　be　understood　by　the　municipal　expenses　of　America。　　The　organization　of　the　municipal　bodies　or　townships　differs　in　the　several　States。　　Are　we　to　be　guided　by　what　occurs　in　New　England　or　in　Georgia；　in　Pennsylvania　or　in　the　State　of　Illinois？　　A　kind　of　analogy　may　very　readily　be　perceived　between　certain　budgets　in　the　two　countries；　but　as　the　elements　of　which　they　are　composed　always　differ　more　or　less；　no　fair　comparison　can　be　instituted　between　them。　　＇The　same　difficulty　exists；　perhaps　to　a　greater　degree　at　the　present　time；　when　the　taxation　of　America　has　largely　increased。　…　1874。＇＇　

＇Footnote　m：　Even　if　we　knew　the　exact　pecuniary　contributions　of　every　French　and　American　citizen　to　the　coffers　of　the　State；　we　should　only　come　at　a　portion　of　the　truth。　　Governments　do　not　only　demand　supplies　of　money；　but　they　call　for　personal　services；　which　may　be　looked　upon　as　equivalent　to　a　given　sum。　　When　a　State　raises　an　army；　besides　the　pay　of　the　troops；　which　is　furnished　by　the　entire　nation；　each　soldier　must　give　up　his　time；　the　value　of　which　depends　on　the　use　he　might　make　of　it　if　he　were　not　in　the　service。　　The　same　remark　applies　to　the　militia；　the　citizen　who　is　in　the　militia　devotes　a　certain　portion　of　valuable　time　to　the　maintenance　of　the　public　peace；　and　he　does　in　reality　surrender　to　the　State　those　earnings　which　he　is　prevented　from　gaining。　　Many　other　instances　might　be　cited　in　addition　to　these。　　The　governments　of　France　and　of　America　both　levy　taxes　of　this　kind；　which　weigh　upon　the　citizens；　but　who　can　estimate　with　accuracy　their　relative　amount　in　the　two　countries？　

This；　however；　is　not　the　last　of　the　difficulties　which　prevent　us　from　comparing　the　expenditure　of　the　Union　with　that　of　France。　　The　French　Government　contracts　certain　obligations　which　do　not　exist　in　America；　and　vice　versa。　　The　French　Government　pays　the　clergy；　in　America　the　voluntary　principle　prevails。　　In　America　there　is　a　legal　provision　for　the　poor；　in　France　they　are　abandoned　to　the　charity　of　the　public。　　The　French　public　officers　are　paid　by　a　fixed　salary；　in　Ameri