the commonwealth of oceana-第1章

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The　Commonwealth　of　Oceana

by　James　Harrington

1656






JANOTTI；　the　most　excellent　describer　of　the　Commonwealth　of　Venice；　divides　the　whole　series　of　government　into　two　times　or　periods：　the　one　ending　with　the　liberty　of　Rome；　which　was　the　course　or　empire；　as　I　may　call　it；　of　ancient　prudence；　first　discovered　to　mankind　by　God　himself　in　the　fabric　of　the　commonwealth　of　Israel；　and　afterward　picked　out　of　his　footsteps　in　nature；　and　unanimously　followed　by　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　the　other　beginning　with　the　arms　of　Caesar；　which；　extinguishing　liberty；　were　the　transition　of　ancient　into　modern　prudence；　introduced　by　those　inundations　of　Huns；　Goths；　Vandals；　Lombards；　Saxons；　which；　breaking　the　Roman　Empire；　deformed　the　whole　face　of　the　world　with　those　ill…features　of　government；　which　at　this　time　are　become　far　worse　in　these　western　parts；　except　Venice；　which；　escaping　the　hands　of　the　barbarians　by　virtue　of　its　impregnable　situation；　has　had　its　eye　fixed　upon　ancient　prudence；　and　is　attained　to　a　perfection　even　beyond　the　copy。　　　　　Relation　being　had　to　these　two　times；　government　（to　define　it　de　jure；　or　according　to　ancient　prudence）　is　an　art　whereby　a　civil　society　of　men　is　instituted　and　preserved　upon　the　foundation　of　common　right　or　interest；　or；　to　follow　Aristotle　and　Livy；　it　is　the　empire　of　laws；　and　not　of　men。　　　　　And　government　（to　define　it　de　facto；　or　according　to　modern　prudence）　is　an　art　whereby　some　man；　or　some　few　men；　subject　a　city　or　a　nation；　and　rule　it　according　to　his　or　their　private　interest；　which；　because　the　laws　in　such　cases　are　made　according　to　the　interest　of　a　man；　or　of　some　few　families；　may　be　said　to　be　the　empire　of　men；　and　not　of　laws。　　　　　The　former　kind　is　that　which　Machiavel　（whose　books　are　neglected）　is　the　only　politician　that　has　gone　about　to　retrieve；　and　that　Leviathan　（who　would　have　his　book　imposed　upon　the　universities）　goes　about　to　destroy。　For　〃it　is；〃　says　he；　〃another　error　of　Aristotle's　politics　that　in　a　well…ordered　commonwealth；　not　men　should　govern；　but　the　laws。　What　man　that　has　his　natural　senses；　though　he　can　neither　write　nor　read；　does　not　find　himself　governed　by　them　he　fears；　and　believes　can　kill　or　hurt　him　when　he　obeys　not？　or；　who　believes　that　the　law　can　hurt　him；　which　is　but　words　and　paper；　without　the　hands　and　swords　of　men？〃　I　confess　that　the　magistrate　upon　his　bench　is　that　to　the　law　which　a　gunner　upon　his　platform　is　to　his　cannon。　Nevertheless；　I　should　not　dare　to　argue　with　a　man　of　any　ingenuity　after　this　manner。　A　whole　army；　though　they　can　neither　write　nor　read；　are　not　afraid　of　a　platform；　which　they　know　is　but　earth　or　stone；　nor　of　a　cannon；　which；　without　a　hand　to　give　fire　to　it；　is　but　cold　iron；　therefore　a　whole　army　is　afraid　of　one　man。　But　of　this　kind　is　the　ratiocination　of　Leviathan；　as　I　shall　show　in　divers　places　that　come　in　my　way；　throughout　his　whole　politics；　or　worse；　as　where　he　says；　〃of　Aristotle　and　of　Cicero；　of　the　Greeks；　and　of　the　Romans；　who　lived　under　popular　States；　that　they　derived　those　rights；　not　from　the　principles　of　nature；　but　transcribed　them　into　their　books　out　of　the　practice　of　their　own　commonwealths；　as　grammarians　describe　the　rules　of　language　out　of　poets。〃　Which　is　as　if　a　man　should　tell　famous　Harvey　that　he　transcribed　his　circulation　of　the　blood；　not　out　of　the　principles　of　nature；　but　out　of　the　anatomy　of　this　or　that　body。　　　　　To　go　on　therefore　with　his　preliminary　discourse；　I　shall　divide　it；　according　to　the　two　definitions　of　government　relating　to　Janotti's　two　times；　in　two　parts：　the　first；　treating　of　the　principles　of　government　in　general；　and　according　to　the　ancients；　the　second；　treating　of　the　late　governments　of　Oceana　in　particular；　and　in　that　of　modern　prudence。　　　　　Government；　according　to　the　ancients；　and　their　learned　disciple　Machiavel；　the　only　politician　of　later　ages；　is　of　three　kinds：　the　government　of　one　man；　or　of　the　better　sort；　or　of　the　whole　people；　which；　by　their　more　learned　names；　are　called　monarchy；　aristocracy；　and　democracy。　These　they　hold；　through　their　proneness　to　degenerate；　to　be　all　evil。　For　whereas　they　that　govern　should　govern　according　to　reason；　if　they　govern　according　to　passion　they　do　that　which　they　should　not　do。　Wherefore；　as　reason　and　passion　are　two　things；　so　government　by　reason　is　one　thing；　and　the　corruption　of　government　by　passion　is　another　thing；　but　not　always　another　government：　as　a　body　that　is　alive　is　one　thing；　and　a　body　that　is　dead　is　another　thing；　but　not　always　another　creature；　though　the　corruption　of　one　comes　at　length　to　be　the　generation　of　another。　The　corruption　then　of　monarchy　is　called　tyranny；　that　of　aristocracy；　oligarchy　and　that　of　democracy；　anarchy。　But　legislators；　having　found　these　three　governments　at　the　best　to　be　naught；　have　invented　another；　consisting　of　a　mixture　of　them　all；　which　only　is　good。　This　is　the　doctrine　of　the　ancients。　　　　　But　Leviathan　is　positive　that　they　are　all　deceived；　and　that　there　is　no　other　government　in　nature　than　one　of　the　three；　as　also　that　the　flesh　of　them　cannot　stink；　the　names　of　their　corruptions　being　but　the　names　of　men's　fancies；　which　will　be　understood　when　we　are　shown　which　of　them　was　Senatus　Populusque　Romanus。　　　　　To　go　my　own　way；　and　yet　to　follow　the　ancients；　the　principles　of　government　are　twofold：　internal；　or　the　goods　of　the　mind；　and　external；　or　the　goods　of　fortune。　The　goods　of　the　mind　are　natural　or　acquired　virtues；　as　wisdom；　prudence；　and　courage；　etc。　The　goods　of　fortune　are　riches。　There　be　goods　also　of　the　body；　as　health；　beauty；　strength；　but　these　are　not　to　be　brought　into　account　upon　this　score；　because　if　a　man　or　an　army　acquires　victory　or　empire；　it　is　more　from　their　discipline；　arms；　and　courage　than　from　their　natural　health；　beauty；　or　strength；　in　regard　that　a　people　conquered　may　have　more　of　natural　strength；　beauty；　and　health；　and　yet　find　little　remedy。　The　principles　of　government　then　are　in　the　goods　of　the　mind；　or　in　the　goods　of　fortune。　To　the　goods　of　the　mind　answers　authority；　to　the　goods　of　fortune；　power　or　empire。　Wherefore　Leviathan；　though　he　be　right　where　he　says　that　〃riches　are　power；〃　is　mistaken　where　he　says　that　〃prudence；　or　the　reputation　of　prudence；　is　power；〃　for　the　learning　or　prudence　of　a　man　is　no　more　power　than　the　learning　or　prudence　of　a　book　or　author；　which　is　properly　authority。　A　learned　writer　may　have　authority　though　he　has　no　power；　and　a　foolish　magistrate　may　have　power；　though　he　has　otherwise　no　esteem　or　authority。　The　difference　of　these　two　is　observed　by　Livy　in　Evander；　of　whom　he　says　that　he　governed　rather　by　the　authority　of　others　than　by　his　own　power。　　　　　To　begin　with　riches；　in　regard　that　men　are　hung　upon　these；　not　of　choice　as　upon　the　other；　but　of　necessity　and　by　the　teeth；　forasmuch　as　he　who　wants　bread　is　his　servant　that　will　feed　him；　if　a　man　thus　feeds　a　whole　people；　they　are　under　his　empire。　　　　　Empire　is　of　two　kinds；　domestic　and　national；　or　foreign　and　provincial。　　　　　Domestic　empire　is　founded　upon　dominion。　Dominion　is　property；　real　or　personal；　that　is　to　say；　in　lands；　or　in　money　and　goods。　　　　　Lands；　or　the　parts　and　parcels　of　a　territory；　are　held　by　the　proprietor　or　proprietors；　lord　or　lords　of　it；　in　some　proportion；　and　such　（except　it　be　in　a　city　that　has　little　or　no　land；　and　whose　revenue　is　in　trade）　as　is　the　proportion　or　balance　of　dominion　or　property　in　land；　such　is　the　nature　of　the　empire。　　　　　If　one　man　be　sole　landlord　of　a　territory；　or　overbalance　the　people；　for　example；　three　parts　in　four；　he　is　grand　seignior；　for　so　the　Turk　is　called　from　his　property；　and　his　empire　is　absolute　monarchy。　　　　　If　the　few　or　a　nobility；　or　a　nobility　with　the　clergy；　be　landlords；　or　overbalance　the　people　to　the　like　proportion；　it　makes　the　Gothic　balance　（to　be　shown　at　large　in　the　second　part　of　this　discourse）；　and　the　empire　is　mixed　monarchy；　as　that　of　Spain；　Poland；　and　late　of　Oceana。　　　　　And　if　the　whole　people　be　landlords；　or　hold　the　lands　so　divided　among　them　that　no　one　man；　or　number　of　men；　within　the　compass　of　the　few　or　aristocracy；　overbalance　them；　the　empire　（without　the　interposition　of　force）　is　a　commonwealth。　　　　　If　force　be　interposed　in　any　of　these　three　cases；　it　must　either　frame　the　government　to　the　foundation；　or　the　foundation　to　the　government；　or　holding　the　government　not　according　to　the　balance；　it　is　not　natural；　but　violent；　and　therefore　if　it　be　at　the　devotion　of　a　prince；　it　is　tyranny；　if　at　the　devotion　of　the　few；　oligarchy；　or　if　in　the　power　of　the　people；　anarchy：　Each　of　which　confusions；　the　balance　standing　otherwise；　is　but　of　short　continuance；　because　against　the　nature　of　the　balance；　which；　not　destroyed；　destroys　that　which　opposes　it。　　　　　But　there　be　certain　other　confusions；　which；　being　rooted　in　the　balance；　are　of　longer　continuance；　and　of　worse　consequence；　as；　first；　where　a　nobility　holds　half　the　property；　or　about　that　proportion；　and　the　people　the　other　half；　in　which　case；　without　altering　the　balance　there　is　no　remedy　but　the　one　must　eat　out　the　other；　as　the　people　did　the　nobility　in　Athens；　and　the　nobility　the　people　in　Rome。　Secondly；　when　a　prince　holds　about　half　the　dominion；　and　the　people　the　other　half　（which　was　the　case　of　the　Roman　emperors；　planted　partly　upon　their　military　colonies　and　partly　upon　the　Senate　and　the　people）；　the　government　becomes　a　very　shambles；　both　of　the　princes　and　the　people。　Somewhat　of　this　nature　are　certain　governments　at　this　day；　which　are　said　to　subsist　by　confusion。　In　this　case；　to　fix　the　balance　is　to　entail　misery；　but　in　the　three　former；　not　to　fix　it　is　to　lose　the　government。　Wherefore　it　being　unlawful　in　Turkey　that　any　should　possess　land　but　the　Grand　Seignior；　the　balance　is　fixed　by　the　law；　and　that　empire　firm。　Nor；　though　the　kings　often　sell　was　the　throne　of　Oceana　known　to　shake；　until　the　statute　of　alienations　broke　the　pillars；　by　giving　way　to　the　nobility　to　sell　their　estates。　While　Lacedaemon　held　to　the　division　of　land　made　by　Lycurgus；　it　was　immovable；　but；　breaking　that；　could　stand　no　longer。　This　kind　of　law　fixing　the　balance　in　lands　is　called　agrarian；　and　was　first　introduced　by　God　himself；　who　divided　the　land　of　Canaan　to　his　people　by　lots；　and　is　of　such　virtue　that　wherever　it　has　held；　that　government　has　not　altered；　except　by　consent；　as　in　that　unparalleled　example　of　the　people　of　Israel；　when　being　in　liberty　they　would　needs　choose　a　king。　But　without　an　agrarian　law；　government；　whether　monarchical；　aristocratical；　or　popular；　has　no　long　lease。　　　　　As　for　dominion；　personal　or　in　money；　it　may　now　and　then　stir　up　a　Melius　or　a　Manlius；　which；　if　the　Commonwealth　be　not　provided　with　some　kind　of　dictatorian　power；　may　be　dangerous；　though　it　has　been　seldom　or　never　successful；　because　to　property　producing　empire；　it　is　required　that　it　should　have　some　certain　root　or　foothold；　which；　except　in　land；　it　cannot　have；　being　otherwise　as　it　were　upon　the　wing。　　　　　Nevertheless；　in　such　cities　as　subsist　mostly　by　trade；　and　have