what is property-第62章

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t　for　legalitytook　this　beautiful　advice；　the　Senate　conjured　up　a　difficulty；　the　reform　was　postponed；　and　that　was　the　end　of　it。　　On　the　contrary；　if　the　demands　of　the　proletaires　became　too　pressing；　it　declared　a　foreign　war；　and　neighboring　nations　were　deprived　of　their　liberty；　to　maintain　the　Roman　aristocracy。

But　the　toils　of　war　were　only　a　halt　for　the　plebeians　in　their　onward　march　towards　pauperism。　　The　lands　confiscated　from　the　conquered　nations　were　immediately　added　to　the　domain　of　the　State；　to　the　ager　publicus；　and；　as　such；　cultivated　for　the　benefit　of　the　treasury；　or；　as　was　more　often　the　case；　they　were　sold　at　auction。　　None　of　them　were　granted　to　the　proletaires；　who；　unlike　the　patricians　and　knights；　were　not　supplied　by　the　victory　with　the　means　of　buying　them。　　War　never　enriched　the　soldier；　the　extensive　plundering　has　been　done　always　by　the　generals。　　The　vans　of　Augereau；　and　of　twenty　others；　are　famous　in　our　armies；　but　no　one　ever　heard　of　a　private　getting　rich。　　Nothing　was　more　common　in　Rome　than　charges　of　peculation；　extortion；　embezzlement；　and　brigandage；　carried　on　in　the　provinces　at　the　head　of　armies；　and　in　other　public　capacities。　　All　these　charges　were　quieted　by　intrigue；　bribery　of　the　judges；　or　desistance　of　the　accuser。　　The　culprit　was　allowed　always　in　the　end　to　enjoy　his　spoils　in　peace；　his　son　was　only　the　more　respected　on　account　of　his　father's　crimes。　　And；　in　fact；　it　could　not　be　otherwise。　　What　would　become　of　us；　if　every　deputy；　peer；　or　public　functionary　should　be　called　upon　to　show　his　title　to　his　fortune！


〃The　patricians　arrogated　the　exclusive　enjoyment　of　the　ager　publicus；　and；　like　the　feudal　seigniors；　granted　some　portions　of　their　lands　to　their　dependants；a　wholly　precarious　concession；　revocable　at　the　will　of　the　grantor。　　The　plebeians；　on　the　contrary；　were　entitled　to　the　enjoyment　of　only　a　little　pasture…land　left　to　them　in　common：　an　utterly　unjust　state　of　things；　since；　in　consequence　of　it；　taxation_census_weighed　more　heavily　upon　the　poor　than　upon　the　rich。　　The　patrician；　in　fact；　always　exempted　himself　from　the　tithe　which　he　owed　as　the　price　and　as　the　acknowledgment　of　the　concession　of　domain；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　paid　no　taxes　on　his　POSSESSIONS；　if；　as　there　is　good　reason　to　believe；　only　citizens'　property　was　taxed。〃Laboulaye：　History　of　Property。


In　order　thoroughly　to　understand　the　preceding　quotation；　we　must　know　that　the　estates　of　CITIZENSthat　is；　estates　independent　of　the　public　domain；　whether　they　were　obtained　in　the　division　of　Numa；　or　had　since　been　sold　by　the　questors　were　alone　regarded　as　PROPERTY；　upon　these　a　tax；　or　_cense_；　was　imposed。　　On　the　contrary；　the　estates　obtained　by　concessions　of　the　public　domain；　of　the　ager　publicus　（for　which　a　light　rent　was　paid）；　were　called　POSSESSIONS。　　Thus；　among　the　Romans；　there　was　a　RIGHT　OF　PROPERTY　and　a　RIGHT　OF　POSSESSION　regulating　the　administration　of　all　estates。　　Now；　what　did　the　proletaires　wish？　　That　the　jus　possessionisthe　simple　right　of　possessionshould　be　extended　to　them　at　the　expense；　as　is　evident；　not　of　private　property；　but　of　the　public　domain；agri　publici。　　The　proletaires；　in　short；　demanded　that　they　should　be　tenants　of　the　land　which　they　had　conquered。　　This　demand；　the　patricians　in　their　avarice　never　would　accede　to。　　Buying　as　much　of　this　land　as　they　could；　they　afterwards　found　means　of　obtaining　the　rest　as　POSSESSIONS。　　Upon　this　land　they　employed　their　slaves。　　The　people；　who　could　not　buy；　on　account　of　the　competition　of　the　rich；　nor　hire；　becausecultivating　with　their　own　handsthey　could　not　promise　a　rent　equal　to　the　revenue　which　the　land　would　yield　when　cultivated　by　slaves；　were　always　deprived　of　possession　and　property。

Civil　wars　relieved；　to　some　extent；　the　sufferings　of　the　multitude。　　〃The　people　enrolled　themselves　under　the　banners　of　the　ambitious；　in　order　to　obtain　by　force　that　which　the　law　refused　them；property。　　A　colony　was　the　reward　of　a　victorious　legion。　　But　it　was　no　longer　the　ager　publicus　only；　it　was　all　Italy　that　lay　at　the　mercy　of　the　legions。　　The　ager　publicus　disappeared　almost　entirely；　。　。　。　but　the　cause　of　the　evilaccumulated　propertybecame　more　potent　than　ever。〃　（Laboulaye：　　History　of　Property。）


The　author　whom　I　quote　does　not　tell　us　why　this　division　of　territory　which　followed　civil　wars　did　not　arrest　the　encroachments　of　accumulated　property；　the　omission　is　easily　supplied。　　Land　is　not　the　only　requisite　for　cultivation；　a　working…stock　is　also　necessary；animals；　tools；　harnesses；　a　house；　an　advance；　&c。　　Where　did　the　colonists；　discharged　by　the　dictator　who　rewarded　them；　obtain　these　things？　　From　the　purse　of　the　usurers；　that　is；　of　the　patricians；　to　whom　all　these　lands　finally　returned；　in　consequence　of　the　rapid　increase　of　usury；　and　the　seizure　of　estates。　　Sallust；　in　his　account　of　the　conspiracy　of　Catiline；　tells　us　of　this　fact。　　The　conspirators　were　old　soldiers　of　Sylla；　who；　as　a　reward　for　their　services；　had　received　from　him　lands　in　Cisalpine　Gaul；　Tuscany；　and　other　parts　of　the　peninsula　Less　than　twenty　years　had　elapsed　since　these　colonists；　free　of　debt；　had　left　the　service　and　commenced　farming；　and　already　they　were　crippled　by　usury；　and　almost　ruined。　　The　poverty　caused　by　the　exactions　of　creditors　was　the　life　of　this　conspiracy　which　well…nigh　inflamed　all　Italy；　and　which；　with　a　worthier　chief　and　fairer　means；　possibly　would　have　succeeded。　　In　Rome；　the　mass　of　the　people　were　favorable　to　the　conspirators_cuncta　plebes　Catilinae　incepta　probabat；_　the　allies　were　weary　of　the　patricians'　robberies；　deputies　from　the　Allobroges　（the　Savoyards）　had　come　to　Rome　to　appeal　to　the　Senate　in　behalf　of　their　fellow…citizens　involved　in　debt；　in　short；　the　complaint　against　the　large　proprietors　was　universal。　　〃We　call　men　and　gods　to　witness；〃　said　the　soldiers　of　Catiline；　who　were　Roman　citizens　with　not　a　slave　among　them；　〃that　we　have　taken　arms　neither　against　the　country；　nor　to　attack　any　one；　but　in　defence　of　our　lives　and　liberties。　　Wretched；　poor；　most　of　us　deprived　of　country；　all　of　us　of　fame　and　fortune；　by　the　violence　and　cruelty　of　usurers；　we　have　no　rights；　no　property；　no　liberty。〃＇1＇

｛NOTE：　footnote　needs　spell…checked｝　＇1＇　　_Dees　hominesque　　testamur；　　nos　arma　neque　　contra　patriam　cepisse　neque　quo　periculum　aliis　　faceremus；　sed　uti　corpora　nostra　ab　injuria　tuta　forent；　qui　miseri；　egentes；　violentia　atque　crudelitate　foeneraterum；　plerique　patriae；　sed　omncsfarna　atque　fortunis　expertes　sumus；　neque　cuiquam　nostrum　licuit；　more　majorum；　lege　uti；　neque；　amisso　patrimonio；　libferum　corpus　habere。_Sallus：　Bellum　Catilinarium。




The　bad　reputation　of　Catiline；　and　his　atrocious　designs；　the　imprudence　of　his　accomplices；　the　treason　of　several；　the　strategy　of　Cicero；　the　angry　outbursts　of　Cato；　and　the　terror　of　the　Senate；　baffled　this　enterprise；　which；　in　furnishing　a　precedent　for　expeditions　against　the　rich；　would　perhaps　have　saved　the　republic；　and　given　peace　to　the　world。　　But　Rome　could　not　evade　her　destiny；　the　end　of　her　expiations　had　not　come。　　A　nation　never　was　known　to　anticipate　its　punishment　by　a　sudden　and　unexpected　conversion。　　Now；　the　long…continued　crimes　of　the　Eternal　City　could　not　be　atoned　for　by　the　massacre　of　a　few　hundred　patricians。　　Catiline　came　to　stay　divine　vengeance；　therefore　his　conspiracy　failed。

The　encroachment　of　large　proprietors　upon　small　proprietors；　by　the　aid　of　usury；　farm…rent；　and　profits　of　all　sorts；　was　common　throughout　the　empire。　　The　most　honest　citizens　invested　their　money　at　high　rates　of　interest。＇1＇　　Cato；　Cicero；　Brutus；　all　the　stoics　so　noted　for　their　frugality；　_viri　frugi_；　Seneca；　the　teacher　of　virtue；levied　enormous　taxes　in　the　provinces；　under　the　name　of　usury；　and　it　is　something　remarkable；　that　the　last　defenders　of　the　republic；　the　proud　Pompeys；　were　all　usurious　aristocrats；　and　oppressors　of　the　poor。　　But　the　battle　of　Pharsalus；　having　killed　men　only；　without　touching　institutions；　the　encroachments　of　the　large　domains　became　every　day　more　active。　　Ever　since　the　birth　of　Christianity；　the　Fathers　have　opposed　this　invasion　with　all　their　might。　　Their　writings　are　filled　with　burning　curses　upon　this　crime　of　usury；　of　which　Christians　are　not　always　innocent。

＇1＇　　Fifty；　sixty；　and　eighty　per　cent。Course　of　M。　Blanqui。




St。　Cyprian　complains　of　certain　bishops　of　his　time；　who；　absorbed　in　disgraceful　stock…jobbing　operations；　abandoned　their　churches；　and　went　about　the　provinces　appropriating　lands　by　artifice　and　fraud；　while　lending　money　and　piling　up　interests　upon　interests。＇1＇　　Why；　in　the　midst　of　this　passion　for　accumulation；　did　not　the　possession　of　the　public　land；　like　private　property；　become　concentrated　in　a　few　hands？


｛NOTE：　footnote　needs　spell…checked｝　＇1＇　　_Episcopi　plurimi；　quos　et　　hortamento　esse　oportet　caeteris　et　exemplo；　divina　prouratione　contempta；　procuratores　rerum　saeularium　fieri；　derelicta　cathedra；　plebe　leserta；　per　alienas　provincias　oberrantes；　negotiationis　quaestuosae　nundinas　au　uucu…；　pari；　esurientibus　in　ecclesia　fratribus　habere　argentum　largitur　velle；　　fundos　insidi。sis　fraudibus　rapere；　usuris　multiplicantibus　faenus　augere。_Cyprian：　De　Lapsis。

｛NOTE：　what　does　＇2＇refer　to？　This　is　at　bottom　of　pg　341　in　MS｝　＇2＇　　In　this　passage；　St。　Cyprian　alludes　to　lending　on　mortgages　and　to　compound　interest。



By　law；　the　domain　of　the　State　was　inalienable；　and　consequently　possession　was　always　revocable；　but　the　edict　of　the　praetor　continued　it　indefinitely；　so　that　finally　the　possessions　of　the　patricians　were　transformed　into　absolute　property；　though　the　name；　possessions；　was　still　applied　to　them。　　This　conversion；　instigated　by　senatorial　avarice；　owed　its　accomplishment　to　the　most　deplorable　and　indiscreet　policy。　　If；　in　the　time　of　Tiberius　Gracchus；　who　wished　to　limit　each　citizen's　possession　of　the　ager　publicus　to　five　hundred　acres；　the　amount　of　this　possession　had　been　fixed　at　as　much　as　one　family　could　cultivate；　and　granted　on　the　express　condition　that　the　possessor　should　cultivate　it　himself；　and　should　lease　it　to　no　one；　the　empire　never　would　have　been　desolated　by　large　estates；　and　possession；　instead　of　increasing　property；　would　have　absorbed　it。　　On　what；　then；　depended　the　establishment　and　maintenance　of　equality　in　conditions　and　fortunes？　　On　a　more　equitable　division　of　the　ager　publicus；　a　wiser　distribution　of　the　right　of　possession。

I　insist　upon　this　point；　which　is　of　the　utmost　importance；　because　it　gives　us　an　opportunity　to　examine　the　history　of　this　individual　possession；　of　which　I　said　so　much　in　my　first　memoir；　and　which　so　few　of　my　readers　seem　to　have　understood。　　The　Roman　republichaving；　as　it　did；　the　power　to　dispose　absolutely　of　its　territory；　and　to　impose　conditions　upon　possessorswas　nearer　to　liberty　and　equality　than　any　nation　has　been　since。　　If　the　Senate　had　been　intelligent　and　just；　if；　at　the　time　of　the　retreat　to　the　Mons　Sacer；　instead　of　the　ridiculous　farce　enacted　by　Menenius　Agrippa；　a　solemn　renuncia