what is property-第61章

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l　between　Athens　and　Sparta；　drawn　twenty　times　since　Bossuet；　the　description　of　the　character　and　morals　of　the　ancient　Romans；　and；　finally；　the　sublime　peroration　which　ends　the　〃Discourse　on　Universal　History。〃　　But　when　the　famous　historian　deals　with　causes；　his　philosophy　is　at　fault。


〃The　tribunes　always　favored　the　division　of　captured　lands；　or　the　proceeds　of　their　sale；　among　the　citizens。　　The　Senate　steadfastly　opposed　those　laws　which　were　damaging　to　the　State；　and　wanted　the　price　of　lands　to　be　awarded　to　the　public　treasury。〃


Thus；　according　to　Bossuet；　the　first　and　greatest　wrong　of　civil　wars　was　inflicted　upon　the　people；　who；　dying　of　hunger；　demanded　that　the　lands；　which　they　had　shed　their　blood　to　conquer；　should　be　given　to　them　for　cultivation。　　The　patricians；　who　bought　them　to　deliver　to　their　slaves；　had　more　regard　for　justice　and　the　public　interests。　　How　little　affects　the　opinions　of　men！　　If　the　roles　of　Cicero　and　the　Gracchi　had　been　inverted；　Bossuet；　whose　sympathies　were　aroused　by　the　eloquence　of　the　great　orator　more　than　by　the　clamors　of　the　tribunes；　would　have　viewed　the　agrarian　laws　in　quite　a　different　light。　　He　then　would　have　understood　that　the　interest　of　the　treasury　was　only　a　pretext；　that；　when　the　captured　lands　were　put　up　at　auction；　the　patricians　hastened　to　buy　them；　in　order　to　profit　by　the　revenues　from　them；certain；　moreover；　that　the　price　paid　would　come　back　to　them　sooner　or　later；　in　exchange　either　for　supplies　furnished　by　them　to　the　republic；　or　for　the　subsistence　of　the　multitude；　who　could　buy　only　of　them；　and　whose　services　at　one　time；　and　poverty　at　another；　were　rewarded　by　the　State。　　For　a　State　does　not　hoard；　on　the　contrary；　the　public　funds　always　return　to　the　people。　　If；　then；　a　certain　number　of　men　are　the　sole　dealers　in　articles　of　primary　necessity；　it　follows　that　the　public　treasury；　in　passing　and　repassing　through　their　hands；　deposits　and　accumulates　real　property　there。

When　Menenius　related　to　the　people　his　fable　of　the　limbs　and　the　stomach；　if　any　one　had　remarked　to　this　story…teller　that　the　stomach　freely　gives　to　the　limbs　the　nourishment　which　it　freely　receives；　but　that　the　patricians　gave　to　the　plebeians　only　for　cash；　and　lent　to　them　only　at　usury；　he　undoubtedly　would　have　silenced　the　wily　senator；　and　saved　the　people　from　a　great　imposition。　　The　Conscript　Fathers　were　fathers　only　of　their　own　line。　　As　for　the　common　people；　they　were　regarded　as　an　impure　race；　exploitable；　taxable；　and　workable　at　the　discretion　and　mercy　of　their　masters。

As　a　general　thing；　Bossuet　shows　little　regard　for　the　people。　　His　monarchical　and　theological　instincts　know　nothing　but　authority；　obedience；　and　alms…giving；　under　the　name　of　charity。

This　unfortunate　disposition　constantly　leads　him　to　mistake　symptoms　for　causes；　and　his　depth；　which　is　so　much　admired；　is　borrowed　from　his　authors；　and　amounts　to　very　little；　after　all。

When　he　says；　for　instance；　that　〃the　dissensions　in　the　republic；　and　finally　its　fall；　were　caused　by　the　jealousies　of　its　citizens；　and　their　love　of　liberty　carried　to　an　extreme　and　intolerable　extent；〃　are　we　not　tempted　to　ask　him　what　caused　those　JEALOUSIES？what　inspired　the　people　with　that　lOVE　OF　LIBERTY；　EXTREME　AND　INTOLERABLE？　　It　would　be　useless　to　reply；　The　corruption　of　morals；　the　disregard　for　the　ancient　poverty；　the　debaucheries；　luxury；　and　class　jealousies；　the　seditious　character　of　the　Gracchi；　&c。　　Why　did　the　morals　become　corrupt；　and　whence　arose　those　eternal　dissensions　between　the　patricians　and　the　plebeians？

In　Rome；　as　in　all　other　places；　the　dissension　between　the　rich　and　the　poor　was　not　caused　directly　by　the　desire　for　wealth　（people；　as　a　general　thing；　do　not　covet　that　which　they　deem　it　illegitimate　to　acquire）；　but　by　a　natural　instinct　of　the　plebeians；　which　led　them　to　seek　the　cause　of　their　adversity　in　the　constitution　of　the　republic。　　So　we　are　doing　to…day；　instead　of　altering　our　public　economy；　we　demand　an　electoral　reform。　　The　Roman　people　wished　to　return　to　the　social　compact；　they　asked　for　reforms；　and　demanded　a　revision　of　the　laws；　and　a　creation　of　new　magistracies。　　The　patricians；　who　had　nothing　to　complain　of；　opposed　every　innovation。　　Wealth　always　has　been　conservative。　　Nevertheless；　the　people　overcame　the　resistance　of　the　Senate；　the　electoral　right　was　greatly　extended；　the　privileges　of　the　plebeians　were　increased；they　had　their　representatives；　their　tribunes；　and　their　consuls；　but；　notwithstanding　these　reforms；　the　republic　could　not　be　saved。　　When　all　political　expedients　had　been　exhausted；　when　civil　war　had　depleted　the　population；　when　the　Caesars　had　thrown　their　bloody　mantle　over　the　cancer　which　was　consuming　the　empire；　inasmuch　as　accumulated　property　always　was　respected；　and　since　the　fire　never　stopped；　the　nation　had　to　perish　in　the　flames。　　The　imperial　power　was　a　compromise　which　protected　the　property　of　the　rich；　and　nourished　the　proletaires　with　wheat　from　Africa　and　Sicily：　a　double　error；　which　destroyed　the　aristocrats　by　plethora　and　the　commoners　by　famine。　　At　last　there　was　but　one　real　proprietor　left；the　emperor；whose　dependent；　flatterer；　parasite；　or　slave；　each　citizen　became；　and　when　this　proprietor　was　ruined；　those　who　gathered　the　crumbs　from　under　his　table；　and　laughed　when　he　cracked　his　jokes；　perished　also。

Montesquieu　succeeded　no　better　than　Bossuet　in　fathoming　the　causes　of　the　Roman　decline；　indeed；　it　may　be　said　that　the　president　has　only　developed　the　ideas　of　the　bishop。　　If　the　Romans　had　been　more　moderate　in　their　conquests；　more　just　to　their　allies；　more　humane　to　the　vanquished；　if　the　nobles　had　been　less　covetous；　the　emperors　less　lawless；　the　people　less　violent；　and　all　classes　less　corrupt；　if　。　。　。　&c。；　perhaps　the　dignity　of　the　empire　might　have　been　preserved；　and　Rome　might　have　retained　the　sceptre　of　the　world！　　That　is　all　that　can　be　gathered　from　the　teachings　of　Montesquieu。　　But　the　truth　of　history　does　not　lie　there；　the　destinies　of　the　world　are　not　dependent　upon　such　trivial　causes。　　The　passions　of　men；　like　the　contingencies　of　time　and　the　varieties　of　climate；　serve　to　maintain　the　forces　which　move　humanity　and　produce　all　historical　changes；　but　they　do　not　explain　them。　　The　grain　of　sand　of　which　Pascal　speaks　would　have　caused　the　death　of　one　man　only；　had　not　prior　action　ordered　the　events　of　which　this　death　was　the　precursor。

Montesquieu　has　read　extensively；　he　knows　Roman　history　thoroughly；　is　perfectly　well　acquainted　with　the　people　of　whom　he　speaks；　and　sees　very　clearly　why　they　were　able　to　conquer　their　rivals　and　govern　the　world。　　While　reading　him　we　admire　the　Romans；　but　we　do　not　like　them；　we　witness　their　triumphs　without　pleasure；　and　we　watch　their　fall　without　sorrow。　　Montesquieu's　work；　like　the　works　of　all　French　writers；　is　skilfully　composed；spirited；　witty；　and　filled　with　wise　observations。　　He　pleases；　interests；　instructs；　but　leads　to　little　reflection；　he　does　not　conquer　by　depth　of　thought；　he　does　not　exalt　the　mind　by　elevated　reason　or　earnest　feeling。　　In　vain　should　we　search　his　writings　for　knowledge　of　antiquity；　the　character　of　primitive　society；　or　a　description　of　the　heroic　ages；　whose　morals　and　prejudices　lived　until　the　last　days　of　the　republic。　　Vico；　painting　the　Romans　with　their　horrible　traits；　represents　them　as　excusable；　because　he　shows　that　all　their　conduct　was　governed　by　preexisting　ideas　and　customs；　and　that　they　were　informed；　so　to　speak；　by　a　superior　genius　of　which　they　were　unconscious；　in　Montesquieu；　the　Roman　atrocity　revolts；　but　is　not　explained。　　Therefore；　as　a　writer；　Montesquieu　brings　greater　credit　upon　French　literature；　as　a　philosopher；　Vico　bears　away　the　palm。

Originally；　property　in　Rome　was　national；　not　private。　　Numa　was　the　first　to　establish　individual　property　by　distributing　the　lands　captured　by　Romulus。　　What　was　the　dividend　of　this　distribution　effected　by　Numa？　　What　conditions　were　imposed　upon　individuals；　what　powers　reserved　to　the　State？　　None　whatever。　　Inequality　of　fortunes；　absolute　abdication　by　the　republic　of　its　right　of　eminent　domain　over　the　property　of　citizens；such　were　the　first　results　of　the　division　of　Numa；　who　justly　may　be　regarded　as　the　originator　of　Roman　revolutions。　　He　it　was　who　instituted　the　worship　of　the　god　Terminus；the　guardian　of　private　possession；　and　one　of　the　most　ancient　gods　of　Italy。　　It　was　Numa　who　placed　property　under　the　protection　of　Jupiter；　who；　in　imitation　of　the　Etrurians；　wished　to　make　priests　of　the　land…surveyors；　who　invented　a　liturgy　for　cadastral　operations；　and　ceremonies　of　consecration　for　the　marking　of　boundaries；　who；　in　short；　made　a　religion　of　property。＇1＇　　All　these　fancies　would　have　been　more　beneficial　than　dangerous；　if　the　holy　king　had　not　forgotten　one　essential　thing；　namely；　to　fix　the　amount　that　each　citizen　could　possess；　and　on　what　conditions　he　could　possess　it。　　For；　since　it　is　the　essence　of　property　to　continually　increase　by　accession　and　profit；　and　since　the　lender　will　take　advantage　of　every　opportunity　to　apply　this　principle　inherent　in　property；　it　follows　that　properties　tend；　by　means　of　their　natural　energy　and　the　religious　respect　which　protects　them；　to　absorb　each　other；　and　fortunes　to　increase　or　diminish　to　an　indefinite　extent；a　process　which　necessarily　results　in　the　ruin　of　the　people；　and　the　fall　of　the　republic。　　Roman　history　is　but　the　development　of　this　law。

＇1＇　　Similar　or　analogous　customs　have　existed　among　all　nations。　Consult；　among　other　works；　〃Origin　of　French　Law；〃　by　M。　Michelet；　and　〃Antiquities　of　German　Law；〃　by　Grimm。




Scarcely　had　the　Tarquins　been　banished　from　Rome　and　the　monarchy　abolished；　when　quarrels　commenced　between　the　orders。　　In　the　year　494　B。C。；　the　secession　of　the　commonalty　to　the　Mons　Sacer　led　to　the　establishment　of　the　tribunate。　　Of　what　did　the　plebeians　complain？　　That　they　were　poor；　exhausted　by　the　interest　which　they　paid　to　the　proprietors；_foeneratoribus；_　that　the　republic；　administered　for　the　benefit　of　the　nobles；　did　nothing　for　the　people；　that；　delivered　over　to　the　mercy　of　their　creditors；　who　could　sell　them　and　their　children；　and　having　neither　hearth　nor　home；　they　were　refused　the　means　of　subsistence；　while　the　rate　of　interest　was　kept　at　its　highest　point；　&c。　　For　five　centuries；　the　sole　policy　of　the　Senate　was　to　evade　these　just　complaints；　and；　notwithstanding　the　energy　of　the　tribunes；　notwithstanding　the　eloquence　of　the　Gracchi；　the　violence　of　Marius；　and　the　triumph　of　Caesar；　this　execrable　policy　succeeded　only　too　well。　　The　Senate　always　temporized；　the　measures　proposed　by　the　tribunes　might　be　good；　but　they　were　inopportune。　　It　admitted　that　something　should　be　done；　but　first　it　was　necessary　that　the　people　should　resume　the　performance　of　their　duties；　because　the　Senate　could　not　yield　to　violence；　and　force　must　be　employed　only　by　the　law。　　If　the　peopleout　of　respect　for　legalitytook　this　beautiful　advice；　the　Senate　conjured　up　a　difficulty；　the　reform　was　postpo