the psychology of revolution-第5章

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Luther　having　taught　that　the　clergy　had　no　need　of　wealth；　the

German　lords　found　many　merits　in　a　faith　which　enabled　them　to

seize　upon　the　goods　of　the　Church。　　Henry　VIII。　enriched

himself　by　a　similar　operation。　　Sovereigns　who　were　often

molested　by　the　Pope　could　as　a　rule　only　look　favourably　upon　a

doctrine　which　added　religious　powers　to　their　political　powers

and　made　each　of　them　a　Pope。　　Far　from　diminishing　the

absolutism　of　rulers；　the　Reformation　only　exaggerated　it。





3。　　Rational　value　of　the　doctrines　of　the　Reformation。





The　Reformation　overturned　all　Europe；　and　came　near　to　ruining

France；　of　which　it　made　a　battle…field　for　a　period　of　fifty

years。　　Never　did　a　cause　so　insignificant　from　the　rational

point　of　view　produce　such　great　results。



Here　is　one　of　the　innumerable　proofs　of　the　fact　that　beliefs

are　propagated　independently　of　all　reason。　　The　theological

doctrines　which　aroused　men's　passions　so　violently；　and　notably

those　of　Calvin；　are　not　even　worthy　of　examination　in　the　light

of　rational　logic。



Greatly　concerned　about　his　salvation；　having　an　excessive　fear

of　the　devil；　which　his　confessor　was　unable　to　allay；　Luther

sought　the　surest　means　of　pleasing　God　that　he　might　avoid　Hell。



Having　commenced　by　denying　the　Pope　the　right　to　sell

indulgences；　he　presently　entirely　denied　his　authority；　and　that

of　the　Church；　condemned　religious　ceremonies；　confession；　and

the　worship　of　the　saints；　and　declared　that　Christians　should

have　no　rules　of　conduct　other　than　the　Bible。　　He　also

considered　that　no　one　could　be　saved　without　the　grace　of　God。



This　last　theory；　known　as　that　of　predestination；　was　in　Luther

rather　uncertain；　but　was　stated　precisely　by　Calvin；　who　made　it

the　very　foundation　of　a　doctrine　to　which　the　majority　of

Protestants　are　still　subservient。　　According　to　him：　‘‘From

all　eternity　God　has　predestined　certain　men　to　be　burned　and

others　to　be　saved。''　　Why　this　monstrous　iniquity？　　Simply

because　‘‘it　is　the　will　of　God。''



Thus　according　to　Calvin；　who　for　that　matter　merely　developed

certain　assertions　of　St。　Augustine；　an　all…powerful　God　would

amuse　Himself　by　creating　living　beings　simply　in　order　to　burn

them　during　all　eternity；　without　paying　any　heed　to　their　acts

or　merits。　　It　is　marvellous　that　such　revolting　insanity　could

for　such　a　length　of　time　subjugate　so　many　mindsmarvellous

that　it　does　so　still。＇1＇







＇1＇　The　doctrine　of　predestination　is　still　taught　in　Protestant

catechisms；　as　is　proved　by　the　following　passage　extracted　from

the　last　edition　of　an　official　catechism　for　which　I　sent　to

Edinburgh：



‘‘By　the　decree　of　God；　for　the　manifestation　of　His　glory；　some

men　and　angels　are　predestinated　unto　everlasting　life；　and

others　foreordained　to　everlasting　death。



‘‘These　angels　and　men；　thus　predestinated　and　foreordained；　are

particularly　and　unchangeably　designed；　and　their　number　is　so

certain　and　definite　that　it　cannot　be　either　increased　or

diminished。



‘‘Those　of　mankind　that　are　predestinated　unto　life；　God；　before

the　foundation　of　the　world　was　laid；　according　to　His　eternal

and　immutable　purpose；　and　the　secret　counsel　and　good　pleasure

of　His　will；　hath　chosen　in　Christ　unto　everlasting　glory；　out　of

His　mere　free　grace　and　love；　without　any　foresight　of　faith　or

good　works；　or　perseverance　in　either　of　them；　or　any　other　thing

in　the　creature；　as　conditions；　or　causes　moving　him　thereunto；

and　all　to　the　praise　of　his　glorious　grace。



‘‘As　God　hath　appointed　the　elect　unto　glory；　so　hath　He；　by　the

eternal　and　most　free　purpose　of　His　will；　foreordained　all　the

means　thereunto。　　Wherefore　they　who　are　elected　being　fallen　in

Adam；　are　redeemed　by　Christ；　are　effectually　called　unto　faith

in　Christ　by　His　spirit　working　in　due　season；　are　justified；

adopted；　sanctified；　and　kept　by　His　power　through　faith　unto

salvation。　　Neither　are　any　other　redeemed　by　Christ；　effectually

called；　justified；　adopted；　sanctified；　and　saved；　but　the　elect

only。''







The　psychology　of　Calvin　is　not　without　affinity　with　that　of

Robespierre。　　Like　the　latter；　the　master　of　the　pure　truth；　he

sent　to　death　those　who　would　not　accept　his　doctrines。　　God；　he

stated；　wishes　‘‘that　one　should　put　aside　all　humanity　when　it

is　a　question　of　striving　for　his　glory。''



The　case　of　Calvin　and　his　disciples　shows　that　matters　which

rationally　are　the　most　contradictory　become　perfectly　reconciled

in　minds　which　are　hypnotised　by　a　belief。　　In　the　eyes　of

rational　logic；　it　seems　impossible　to　base　a　morality　upon　the

theory　of　predestination；　since　whatever　they　do　men　are　sure　of

being　either　saved　or　damned。　　However；　Calvin　had　no　difficulty

in　erecting　a　most　severe　morality　upon　this　totally　illogical

basis。　　Considering　themselves　the　elect　of　God；　his　disciples

were　so　swollen　by　pride　and　the　sense　of　their　own　dignity　that

they　felt　obliged　to　serve　as　models　in　their　conduct。





4。　　Propagation　of　the　Reformation。





The　new　faith　was　propagated　not　by　speech；　still　less　by　process

of　reasoning；　but　by　the　mechanism　described　in　our　preceding

work：　that　is；　by　the　influence　of　affirmation；　repetition；

mental　contagion；　and　prestige。　　At　a　much　later　date

revolutionary　ideas　were　spread　over　France　in　the　same　fashion。



Persecution；　as　we　have　already　remarked；　only　favoured　this

propagation。　　Each　execution　led　to　fresh　conversions；　as　was

seen　in　the　early　years　of　the　Christian　Church。　　Anne　Dubourg；

Parliamentary　councillor；　condemned　to　be　burned　alive；　marched

to　the　stake　exhorting　the　crowd　to　be　converted。　　‘‘His　

constancy；''　says　a　witness；　‘‘made　more　Protestants　among　the

young　men　of　the　colleges　than　the　books　of　Calvin。''



To　prevent　the　condemned　from　speaking　to　the　people　their

tongues　were　cut　out　before　they　were　burned。　　The　horror　of

their　sufferings　was　increased　by　attaching　the　victims　to　an

iron　chain；　which　enabled　the　executioners　to　plunge　them　into

the　fire　and　withdraw　them　several　times　in　succession。



But　nothing　induced　the　Protestants　to　retract；　even　the　offer　of

an　amnesty　after　they　had　felt　the　fire。



In　1535　Francis　I。；　forsaking　his　previous　tolerance；　ordered　six

fires　to　be　lighted　simultaneously　in　Paris。　　The　Convention；　as

we　know；　limited　itself　to　a　single　guillotine　in　the　same　city。　

It　is　probable　that　the　sufferings　of　the　victims　were　not　very

excruciating；　the　insensibility　of　the　Christian　martyrs　had

already　been　remarked。　　Believers　are　hypnotised　by　their　faith；

and　we　know　to…day　that　certain　forms　of　hypnotism　engender

complete　insensibility。



The　new　faith　progressed　rapidly。　　In　1560　there　were　two

thousand　reformed　churches　in　France；　and　many　great　lords；　at

first　indifferent　enough；　adhered　to　the　new　doctrine。





5。　　Conflict　between　different　religious　beliefsImpossibility

of　Tolerance。





I　have　already　stated　that　intolerance　is　always　an　accompaniment

of　powerful　religious　beliefs。　　Political　and　religious

revolutions　furnish　us　with　numerous　proofs　of　this　fact；　and

show　us　also　that　the　mutual　intolerance　of　sectaries　of　the　same

religion　is　always　much　greater　than　that　of　the　defenders

of　remote　and　alien　faiths；　such　as　Islamism　and　Christianity。　

In　fact；　if　we　consider　the　faiths　for　whose　sake　France　was　so

long　rent　asunder；　we　shall　find　that　they　did　not　differ　on　any

but　accessory　points。　　Catholics　and　Protestants　adored　exactly

the　same　God；　and　only　differed　in　their　manner　of　adoring　Him。　

If　reason　had　played　the　smallest　part　in　the　elaboration　of

their　belief；　it　could　easily　have　proved　to　them　that　it　must　be

quite　indifferent　to　God　whether　He　sees　men　adore　Him　in　this

fashion　or　in　that。



Reason　being　powerless　to　affect　the　brain　of　the　convinced；

Protestants　and　Catholics　continued　their　ferocious　conflicts。　

All　the　efforts　of　their　sovereigns　to　reconcile　them　were　in

vain。　　Catherine　de　Medicis；　seeing　the　party　of　the　Reformed

Church　increasing　day　by　day　in　spite　of　persecution；　and

attracting　a　considerable　number　of　nobles　and　magistrates；

thought　to　disarm　them　by　convoking　at　Poissy；　in　1561；　an

assembly　of　bishops　and　pastors　with　the　object　of　fusing　the　two

doctrines。　　Such　an　enterprise　indicated　that　the　queen；　despite

her　subtlety；　knew　nothing　of　the　laws　of　mystic　logic。　　Not　in

all　history　can　one　cite　an　example　of　a　belief　destroyed　or

reduced　by　means　of　refutation。　　Catherine　did　not　even　know　that

although　toleration　is　with　difficulty　possible　between

individuals；　it　is　impossible　between　collectivities。　　Her

attempt　failed　completely。　　The　assembled　theologians　hurled

texts　and　insults　at　one　another's　heads；　but　no　one　was　moved。　

Catherine　thought　to　succeed　better　in　1562　by　promulgating　an

edict　according　Protestants　the　right　to　unite　in　the　public

celebration　of　their　cult。



This　tolerance；　very　admirable　from　a　philosophical　point　of

view；　but　not　at　all　wise　from　the　political　standpoint；　had　no

other　result　beyond　exasperating　both　parties。　　In　the　Midi；

where　the　Protestants　were　strongest；　they　persecuted　the

Catholics；　sought　to　convert　them　by　violence；　cut　their　throats

if　they　did　not　succeed；　and　sacked　their　cathedrals。　　In　the

regions　where　the　Catholics　were　more　numerous　the　Reformers

suffered　like　persecutions。



Such　hostilities　as　these　inevitably　engendered　civil　war。　　Thus

arose　the　so…called　religious　wars；　which　so　long　spilled　the

blood　of　France。　　The　cities　were　ravaged；　the　inhabitants

massacred；　and　the　struggle　rapidly　assumed　that　special　quality

of　ferocity　peculiar　to　religious　or　political　conflicts；　which；

at　a　later　date；　was　to　reappear　in　the　wars　of　La　Vendee。



Old　men；　women；　and　children；　all　were　exterminated。　　A　certain

Baron　d'Oppede；　first　president　of　the　Parliament　of　Aix；　had

already　set　an　example　by　killing　3；000　persons　in　the　space　of

ten　days；　with　refinements　of　cruelty；　and　destroying　three

cities　and　twenty…two　villages。　　Montluc；　a　worthy　forerunner　of

Carrier；　had　the　Calvinists　thrown　living　into　the　wells　until

these　were　full。　　The　Protestants　were　no　more　humane。　　They　did

not　spare　even　the　Catholic　churches；　and　treated　the　tombs　and

statues　just　as　the　delegates　of　the　Convention　were　to　treat　the

royal　tombs　of　Saint　Denis。



Under　the　influence　of　these　conflicts　France　was　progressively

disintegrated；　and　at　the　end　of　the　reign　of　Henri　III。　was

parcelled　out　into　veritable　little　confederated　municipal

republics；　forming　so　many　sovereign　states。　　The　royal　power　was

vanishing。　　The　States　of　Blois　claimed　to　dictate　their　wishes

to　Henri　III。；　who　had　fled　from　his　capital。　　In　1577　the

traveller　Lippomano；　who　traversed　France；　saw