the psychology of revolution-第4章

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make　itself　absolute；　and　the　nation；　which　claimed　the　right　to

govern　itself　through　the　medium　of　its　representatives。



The　great　revolutions　have　usually　commenced　from　the　top；　not

from　the　bottom；　but　once　the　people　is　unchained　it　is　to　the

people　that　revolution　owes　its　might。



It　is　obvious　that　revolutions　have　never　taken　place；　and　will

never　take　place；　save　with　the　aid　of　an　important　fraction　of

the　army。　　Royalty　did　not　disappear　in　France　on　the　day　when

Louis　XVI。　was　guillotined；　but　at　the　precise　moment　when　his

mutinous　troops　refused　to　defend　him。



It　is　more　particularly　by　mental　contagion　that　armies　become

disaffected；　being　indifferent　enough　at　heart　to　the　established

order　of　things。　　As　soon　as　the　coalition　of　a　few　officers　had

succeeded　in　overthrowing　the　Turkish　Government　the　Greek

officers　thought　to　imitate　them　and　to　change　their　government；

although　there　was　no　analogy　between　the　two　regimes。



A　military　movement　may　overthrow　a　governmentand　in　the

Spanish　republics　the　Government　is　hardly　ever　destroyed　by　any

other　meansbut　if　the　revolution　is　to　be　productive　of　great

results　it　must　always　be　based　upon　general　discontent　and

general　hopes。



Unless　it　is　universal　and　excessive；　discontent　alone　is　not

sufficient　to　bring　about　a　revolution。　　It　is　easy　to　lead　a

handful　of　men　to　pillage；　destroy；　and　massacre；　but　to　raise　a

whole　people；　or　any　great　portion　of　that　people；　calls　for　the

continuous　or　repeated　action　of　leaders。　　These　exaggerate　the

discontent；　they　persuade　the　discontented　that　the　government　is

the　sole　cause　of　all　the　trouble；　especially　of　the　prevailing

dearth；　and　assure　men　that　the　new　system　proposed　by　them　will

engender　an　age　of　felicity。　　These　ideas　germinate；　propagating

themselves　by　suggestion　and　contagion；　and　the　moment　arrives

when　the　revolution　is　ripe。



In　this　fashion　the　Christian　Revolution　and　the　French

Revolution　were　prepared。　　That　the　latter　was　effected　in　a　few

years；　while　the　first　required　many；　was　due　to　the　fact　that

the　French　Revolution　promptly　had　an　armed　force　at　its

disposal；　while　Christianity　was　long　in　winning　material　power。　

In　the　beginning　its　only　adepts　were　the　lowly；　the　poor；　and

the　slaves；　filled　with　enthusiasm　by　the　prospect　of　seeing

their　miserable　life　transformed　into　an　eternity　of　delight。　　By

a　phenomenon　of　contagion　from　below；　of　which　history　affords　us

more　than　one　example；　the　doctrine　finally　invaded　the　upper

strata　of　the　nation；　but　it　was　a　long　time　before　an

emperor　considered　the　new　faith　sufficiently　widespread　to　be

adopted　as　the　official　religion。





4。　　The　Results　of　Political　Revolutions。





When　a　political　party　is　triumphant　it　naturally　seeks　to

organise　society　in　accordance　with　its　interests。　　The

organisation　will　differ　accordingly　as　the　revolution　has　been

effected　by　the　soldiers；　the　Radicals；　or　the　Conservatives；　&c。



The　new　laws　and　institutions　will　depend　on　the　interests　of　the

triumphant　party　and　of　the　classes　which　have　assisted　itthe

clergy　for　instance。



If　the　revolution　has　triumphed　only　after　a　violent　struggle；　as

was　the　case　with　the　French　Revolution；　the　victors　will　reject

at　one　sweep　the　whole　arsenal　of　the　old　law。　　The　supporters　of

the　fallen　regime　will　be　persecuted；　exiled；　or　exterminated。



The　maximum　of　violence　in　these　persecutions　is　attained　when

the　triumphant　party　is　defending　a　belief　in　addition　to　its

material　interests。　　Then　the　conquered　need　hope　for　no　pity。　

Thus　may　be　explained　the　expulsion　of　the　Moors　from　Spain；　the

autodafes　of　the　Inquisition；　the　executions　of　the

Convention；　and　the　recent　laws　against　the　religious

congregations　in　France。



The　absolute　power　which　is　assumed　by　the　victors　leads　them

sometimes　to　extreme　measures；　such　as　the　Convention's　decree

that　gold　was　to　be　replaced　by　paper；　that　goods　were　to　be　sold

at　determined　prices；　&c。　　Very　soon　it　runs　up　against　a　wall　of

unavoidable　necessities；　which　turn　opinion　against　its　tyranny；

and　finally　leave　it　defenceless　before　attack；　as　befell　at　the

end　of　the　French　Revolution。　　The　same　thing　happened

recently　to　a　Socialist　Australian　ministry　composed　almost

exclusively　of　working…men。　　It　enacted　laws　so　absurd；　and

accorded　such　privileges　to　the　trade　unions；　that　public　opinion

rebelled　against　it　so　unanimously　that　in　three　months　it　was

overthrown。



But　the　cases　we　have　considered　are　exceptional。　　The　majority

of　revolutions　have　been　accomplished　in　order　to　place　a　new

sovereign　in　power。　　Now　this　sovereign　knows　very　well　that　the

first　condition　of　maintaining　his　power　consists　in　not　too

exclusively　favouring　a　single　class；　but　in　seeking　to

conciliate　all。　　To　do　this　he　will　establish　a　sort　of

equilibrium　between　them；　so　as　not　to　be　dominated　by　any　one　of

these　classes。　　To　allow　one　class　to　become　predominant　is　to

condemn　himself　presently　to　accept　that　class　as　his　master。　

This　law　is　one　of　the　most　certain　of　political　psychology。　　The

kings　of　France　understood　it　very　well　when　they　struggled　so

energetically　against　the　encroachments　first　of　the　nobility　and

then　of　the　clergy。　　If　they　had　not　done　so　their　fate　would

have　been　that　of　the　German　Emperors　of　the　Middle　Ages；　who；

excommunicated　by　the　Pope；　were　reduced；　like　Henry　IV。　at

Canossa；　to　make　a　pilgrimage　and　humbly　to　sue　for　the　Pope's

forgiveness。



This　same　law　has　continually　been　verified　during　the　course　of

history。　　When　at　the　end　of　the　Roman　Empire　the　military　caste

became　preponderant；　the　emperors　depended　entirely　upon　their

soldiers；　who　appointed　and　deposed　them　at　will。



It　was　therefore　a　great　advantage　for　France　that　she　was　so

long　governed　by　a　monarch　almost　absolute；　supposed　to

hold　his　power　by　divine　right；　and　surrounded　therefore　by　a

considerable　prestige。　　Without　such　an　authority　he　could　have

controlled　neither　the　feudal　nobility；　nor　the　clergy；　nor　the

parliaments。　　If　Poland；　towards　the　end　of　the　sixteenth

century；　had　also　possessed　an　absolute　and　respected　monarchy；

she　would　not　have　descended　the　path　of　decadence　which　led　to

her　disappearance　from　the　map　of　Europe。



We　have　shewn　in　this　chapter　that　political　revolutions　may　be

accompanied　by　important　social　transformations。　　We　shall　soon

see　how　slight　are　these　transformations　compared　to　those

produced　by　religious　revolutions。







CHAPTER　II



RELIGIOUS　REVOLUTIONS



1。　　The　importance　of　the　study　of　Religious　Revolutions　in

respect　of　the　comprehension　of　the　great　Political　Revolutions。





A　portion　of　this　work　will　be　devoted　to　the　French　Revolution。　

It　was　full　of　acts　of　violence　which　naturally　had　their

psychological　causes。



These　exceptional　events　will　always　fill　us　with　astonishment；

and　we　even　feel　them　to　be　inexplicable。　　They　become

comprehensible；　however；　if　we　consider　that　the　French

Revolution；　constituting　a　new　religion；　was　bound　to　obey　the

laws　which　condition　the　propagation　of　all　beliefs。　　Its　fury

and　its　hecatombs　will　then　become　intelligible。



In　studying　the　history　of　a　great　religious　revolution；　that　of

the　Reformation；　we　shall　see　that　a　number　of　psychological

elements　which　figured　therein　were　equally　active　during　the

French　Revolution。　　In　both　we　observe　the　insignificant　bearing

of　the　rational　value　of　a　belief　upon　its　propagation；　the

inefficacy　of　persecution；　the　impossibility　of　tolerance　between

contrary　beliefs；　and　the　violence　and　the　desperate　struggles

resulting　from　the　conflict　of　different　faiths。　　We　also　observe

the　exploitation　of　a　belief　by　interests　quite　independent

of　that　belief。　　Finally　we　see　that　it　is　impossible　to　modify

the　convictions　of　men　without　also　modifying　their　existence。



These　phenomena　verified；　we　shall　see　plainly　why　the　gospel　of

the　Revolution　was　propagated　by　the　same　methods　as　all　the

religious　gospels；　notably　that　of　Calvin。　　It　could　not　have

been　propagated　otherwise。



But　although　there　are　close　analogies　between　the　genesis　of　a

religious　revolution；　such　as　the　Reformation；　and　that　of　a

great　political　revolution　like　our　own；　their　remote

consequences　are　very　different；　which　explains　the　difference　of

duration　which　they　display。　　In　religious　revolutions　no

experience　can　reveal　to　the　faithful　that　they　are　deceived；

since　they　would　have　to　go　to　heaven　to　make　the　discovery。　　In

political　revolutions　experience　quickly　demonstrates　the　error

of　a　false　doctrine　and　forces　men　to　abandon　it。



Thus　at　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　application　of　Jacobin

beliefs　had　led　France　to　such　a　degree　of　ruin；　poverty；　and

despair　that　the　wildest　Jacobins　themselves　had　to　renounce

their　system。　　Nothing　survived　of　their　theories　except　a　few

principles　which　cannot　be　verified　by　experience；　such　as　the

universal　happiness　which　equality　should　bestow　upon　humanity。





2。　　The　beginnings　of　the　Reformation　and　its　first　disciples。





The　Reformation　was　finally　to　exercise　a　profound　influence　upon

the　sentiments　and　moral　ideas　of　a　great　proportion　of　mankind。　

Modest　in　its　beginnings；　it　was　at　first　a　simple　struggle

against　the　abuses　of　the　clergy；　and；　from　a　practical　point　of

view；　a　return　to　the　prescriptions　of　the　Gospel。　　It　never

constituted；　as　has　been　claimed；　an　aspiration　towards　freedom

of　thought。　　Calvin　was　as　intolerant　as　Robespierre；　and　all　the

theorists　of　the　age　considered　that　the　religion　of　subjects

must　be　that　of　the　prince　who　governed　them。　　Indeed　in　every

country　where　the　Reformation　was　established　the　sovereign

replaced　the　Pope　of　Rome；　with　the　same　rights　and　the　same

powers。



In　France；　in　default　of　publicity　and　means　of　communication；

the　new　faith　spread　slowly　enough　at　first。　　It　was　about　1520

that　Luther　recruited　a　few　adepts；　and　only　towards　1535　was　the

new　belief　sufficiently　widespread　for　men　to　consider　it

necessary　to　burn　its　disciples。



In　conformity　with　a　well…known　psychological　law；　these

executions　merely　favoured　the　propagation　of　the　Reformation。　

Its　first　followers　included　priests　and　magistrates；　but　were

principally　obscure　artisans。　　Their　conversion　was　effected

almost　exclusively　by　mental　contagion　and　suggestion。



As　soon　as　a　new　belief　extends　itself；　we　see　grouped　round　it

many　persons　who　are　indifferent　to　the　belief；　but　who　find　in

it　a　pretext　or　opportunity　for　gratifying　their　passions　or

their　greed。　　This　phenomenon　was　observed　at　the　time　of　the

Reformation　in　many　countries；　notably　in　Germany　and　in　England。



Luther　having　taught　that　the　clergy　had　no　need　of　wealth；　the