essays and lectures-第5章

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survival　of　ancient　customs：　　for；　whereas　in　the　sham　capture　of

the　bride　at　a　marriage　feast；　which　was　common　in　Wales　till　a

recent　time；　we　can　discern　the　lingering　reminiscence　of　the

barbarous　habit　of　exogamy；　the　ancient　writers　saw　only　the

deliberate　commemoration　of　an　historical　event。



Aristotle　does　not　tell　us　by　what　method　he　discovered　that　the

Greeks　used　to　buy　their　wives　in　primitive　times；　but；　judging　by

his　general　principles；　it　was　probably　through　some　legend　or　myth

on　the　subject　which　lasted　to　his　own　day；　and　not；　as　we　would

do；　by　arguing　back　from　the　marriage　presents　given　to　the　bride

and　her　relatives。　（4）



The　origin　of　the　common　proverb　'worth　so　many　beeves；'　in　which

we　discern　the　unconscious　survival　of　a　purely　pastoral　state　of

society　before　the　use　of　metals　was　known；　is　ascribed　by　Plutarch

to　the　fact　of　Theseus　having　coined　money　bearing　a　bull's　head。

Similarly；　the　Amathusian　festival；　in　which　a　young　man　imitated

the　labours　of　a　woman　in　travail；　is　regarded　by　him　as　a　rite

instituted　in　Ariadne's　honour；　and　the　Carian　adoration　of

asparagus　as　a　simple　commemoration　of　the　adventure　of　the　nymph

Perigune。　　In　the　first　of　these　WE　discern　the　beginning　of

agnation　and　kinsmanship　through　the　father；　which　still　lingers　in

the　'couvee'　of　New　Zealand　tribes：　　while　the　second　is　a　relic　of

the　totem　and　fetish　worship　of　plants。



Now；　in　entire　opposition　to　this　modern　inductive　principle　of

research　stands　the　philosophic　Plato；　whose　account　of　primitive

man　is　entirely　speculative　and　deductive。



The　origin　of　society　he　ascribes　to　necessity；　the　mother　of　all

inventions；　and　imagines　that　individual　man　began　deliberately　to

herd　together　on　account　of　the　advantages　of　the　principle　of

division　of　labour　and　the　rendering　of　mutual　need。



It　must；　however；　be　borne　in　mind　that　Plato's　object　in　this

whole　passage　in　the　REPUBLIC　was；　perhaps；　not　so　much　to　analyse

the　conditions　of　early　society　as　to　illustrate　the　importance　of

the　division　of　labour；　the　shibboleth　of　his　political　economy；　by

showing　what　a　powerful　factor　it　must　have　been　in　the　most

primitive　as　well　as　in　the　most　complex　states　of　society；　just　as

in　the　LAWS　he　almost　rewrites　entirely　the　history　of　the

Peloponnesus　in　order　to　prove　the　necessity　of　a　balance　of　power。

He　surely；　I　mean；　must　have　recognised　himself　how　essentially

incomplete　his　theory　was　in　taking　no　account　of　the　origin　of

family　life；　the　position　and　influence　of　women；　and　other　social

questions；　as　well　as　in　disregarding　those　deeper　motives　of

religion；　which　are　such　important　factors　in　early　civilisation；

and　whose　influence　Aristotle　seems　to　have　clearly　apprehended；

when　he　says　that　the　aim　of　primitive　society　was　not　merely　life

but　the　higher　life；　and　that　in　the　origin　of　society　utility　is

not　the　sole　motive；　but　that　there　is　something　spiritual　in　it

if；　at　least；　'spiritual'　will　bring　out　the　meaning　of　that

complex　expression　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇。

Otherwise；　the　whole　account　in　the　REPUBLIC　of　primitive　man　will

always　remain　as　a　warning　against　the　intrusion　of　A　PRIORI

speculations　in　the　domain　appropriate　to　induction。



Now；　Aristotle's　theory　of　the　origin　of　society；　like　his

philosophy　of　ethics；　rests　ultimately　on　the　principle　of　final

causes；　not　in　the　theological　meaning　of　an　aim　or　tendency

imposed　from　without；　but　in　the　scientific　sense　of　function

corresponding　to　organ。　　'Nature　maketh　no　thing　in　vain'　is　the

text　of　Aristotle　in　this　as　in　other　inquiries。　　Man　being　the

only　animal　possessed　of　the　power　of　rational　speech　is；　he

asserts；　by　nature　intended　to　be　social；　more　so　than　the　bee　or

any　other　gregarious　animal。



He　is　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　and　the　national

tendency　towards　higher　forms　of　perfection　brings　the　'armed

savage　who　used　to　sell　his　wife'　to　the　free　independence　of　a

free　state；　and　to　the　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；

which　was　the　test　of　true　citizenship。　　The　stages　passed　through

by　humanity　start　with　the　family　first　as　the　ultimate　unit。



The　conglomeration　of　families　forms　a　village　ruled　by　that

patriarchal　sway　which　is　the　oldest　form　of　government　in　the

world；　as　is　shown　by　the　fact　that　all　men　count　it　to　be　the

constitution　of　heaven；　and　the　villages　are　merged　into　the　state；

and　here　the　progression　stops。



For　Aristotle；　like　all　Greek　thinkers；　found　his　ideal　within　the

walls　of　the　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　yet　perhaps

in　his　remark　that　a　united　Greece　would　rule　the　world　we　may

discern　some　anticipation　of　that　'federal　union　of　free　states

into　one　consolidated　empire'　which；　more　than　the　＇Greek　text

which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　is　to　our　eyes　the　ultimately　perfect

polity。



How　far　Aristotle　was　justified　in　regarding　the　family　as　the

ultimate　unit；　with　the　materials　afforded　to　him　by　Greek

literature；　I　have　already　noticed。　　Besides；　Aristotle；　I　may

remark；　had　he　reflected　on　the　meaning　of　that　Athenian　law　which；

while　prohibiting　marriage　with　a　uterine　sister；　permitted　it　with

a　sister…german；　or　on　the　common　tradition　in　Athens　that　before

the　time　of　Cecrops　children　bore　their　mothers'　names；　or　on　some

of　the　Spartan　regulations；　could　hardly　have　failed　to　see　the

universality　of　kinsmanship　through　women　in　early　days；　and　the

late　appearance　of　monandry。　　Yet；　while　he　missed　this　point；　in

common；　it　must　be　acknowledged；　with　many　modern　writers；　such　as

Sir　Henry　Maine；　it　is　essentially　as　an　explorer　of　inductive

instances　that　we　recognise　his　improvement　on　Plato。　　The　treatise

＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　did　it　remain　to　us　in　its

entirety；　would　have　been　one　of　the　most　valuable　landmarks　in　the

progress　of　historical　criticism；　and　the　first　scientific　treatise

on　the　science　of　comparative　politics。



A　few　fragments　still　remain　to　us；　in　one　of　which　we　find

Aristotle　appealing　to　the　authority　of　an　ancient　inscription　on

the　'Disk　of　Iphitus；'　one　of　the　most　celebrated　Greek

antiquities；　to　corroborate　his　theory　of　the　Lycurgean　revival　of

the　Olympian　festival；　while　his　enormous　research　is　evinced　in

the　elaborate　explanation　he　gives　of　the　historical　origin　of

proverbs　such　as　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　of

religious　songs　like　the　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇　of

the　Botticean　virgins；　or　the　praises　of　love　and　war。



And；　finally；　it　is　to　be　observed　how　much　wider　than　Plato's　his

theory　of　the　origin　of　society　is。　　They　both　rest　on　a

psychological　basis；　but　Aristotle's　recognition　of　the　capacity

for　progress　and　the　tendency　towards　a　higher　life　shows　how　much

deeper　his　knowledge　of　human　nature　was。



In　imitation　of　these　two　philosophers；　Polybius　gives　an　account

of　the　origin　of　society　in　the　opening　to　his　philosophy　of

history。　　Somewhat　in　the　spirit　of　Plato；　he　imagines　that　after

one　of　the　cyclic　deluges　which　sweep　off　mankind　at　stated　periods

and　annihilate　all　pre…existing　civilisation；　the　few　surviving

members　of　humanity　coalesce　for　mutual　protection；　and；　as　in　the

case　with　ordinary　animals；　the　one　most　remarkable　for　physical

strength　is　elected　king。　　In　a　short　time；　owing　to　the　workings

of　sympathy　and　the　desire　of　approbation；　the　moral　qualities

begin　to　make　their　appearance；　and　intellectual　instead　of　bodily

excellence　becomes　the　qualification　for　sovereignty。



Other　points；　as　the　rise　of　law　and　the　like；　are　dwelt　on　in　a

somewhat　modern　spirit；　and　although　Polybius　seems　not　to　have

employed　the　inductive　method　of　research　in　this　question；　or

rather；　I　should　say；　of　the　hierarchical　order　of　the　rational

progress　of　ideas　in　life；　he　is　not　far　removed　from　what　the

laborious　investigations　of　modern　travellers　have　given　us。



And；　indeed；　as　regards　the　working　of　the　speculative　faculty　in

the　creation　of　history；　it　is　in　all　respects　marvellous　how　that

the　most　truthful　accounts　of　the　passage　from　barbarism　to

civilisation　in　ancient　literature　come　from　the　works　of　poets。

The　elaborate　researches　of　Mr。　Tylor　and　Sir　John　Lubbock　have

done　little　more　than　verify　the　theories　put　forward　in　the

PROMETHEUS　BOUND　and　the　DE　NATURA　RERUM；　yet　neither　AEschylus　nor

Lucretias　followed　in　the　modern　path；　but　rather　attained　to　truth

by　a　certain　almost　mystic　power　of　creative　imagination；　such　as

we　now　seek　to　banish　from　science　as　a　dangerous　power；　though　to

it　science　seems　to　owe　many　of　its　most　splendid　generalities。　（5）



Leaving　then　the　question　of　the　origin　of　society　as　treated　by

the　ancients；　I　shall　now　turn　to　the　other　and　the　more　important

question　of　how　far　they　may　he　said　to　have　attained　to　what　we

call　the　philosophy　of　history。



Now　at　the　outset　we　must　note　that；　while　the　conceptions　of　law

and　order　have　been　universally　received　as　the　governing

principles　of　the　phenomena　of　nature　in　the　sphere　of　physical

science；　yet　their　intrusion　into　the　domain　of　history　and　the

life　of　man　has　always　been　met　with　a　strong　opposition；　on　the

ground　of　the　incalculable　nature　of　two　great　forces　acting　on

human　action；　a　certain　causeless　spontaneity　which　men　call　free

will；　and　the　extra…natural　interference　which　they　attribute　as　a

constant　attribute　to　God。



Now；　that　there　is　a　science　of　the　apparently　variable　phenomena

of　history　is　a　conception　which　WE　have　perhaps　only　recently

begun　to　appreciate；　yet；　like　all　other　great　thoughts；　it　seems

to　have　come　to　the　Greek　mind　spontaneously；　through　a　certain

splendour　of　imagination；　in　the　morning　tide　of　their

civilisation；　before　inductive　research　had　armed　them　with　the

instruments　of　verification。　　For　I　think　it　is　possible　to　discern

in　some　of　the　mystic　speculations　of　the　early　Greek　thinkers　that

desire　to　discover　what　is　that　'invariable　existence　of　which

there　are　variable　states；'　and　to　incorporate　it　in　some　one

formula　of　law　which　may　serve　to　explain　the　different

manifestations　of　all　organic　bodies；　MAN　INCLUDED；　which　is　the

germ　of　the　philosophy　of　history；　the　germ　indeed　of　an　idea　of

which　it　is　not　too　much　to　say　that　on　it　any　kind　of　historical

criticism；　worthy　of　the　name；　must　ultimately　rest。



For　the　very　first　requisite　for　any　scientific　conception　of

history　is　the　doctrine　of　uniform　sequence：　　in　other　words；　that

certain　events　having　happened；　certain　other　events　corresponding

to　them　will　happen　also；　that　the　past　is　the　key　of　the　future。



Now　at　the　birth　of　this　great　conception　science；　it　is　true；

presided；　yet　religion　it　was　which　at　the　outset　clothed　it　in　its

own　garb；　and　familiarised　men　with　it　by　appealing　to　the