essays and lectures-第4章

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development　as　evinced　not　merely　in　the　works　of　historians

proper；　but　also　in　the　philosophical　treatises　of　Plato　and

Aristotle。　　The　important　position　which　these　two　great　thinkers

occupy　in　the　progress　of　historical　criticism　can　hardly　be　over…

estimated。　　I　do　not　mean　merely　as　regards　their　treatment　of　the

Greek　Bible；　and　Plato's　endeavours　to　purge　sacred　history　of　its

immorality　by　the　application　of　ethical　canons　at　the　time　when

Aristotle　was　beginning　to　undermine　the　basis　of　miracles　by　his

scientific　conception　of　law；　but　with　reference　to　these　two　wider

questions　of　the　rise　of　civil　institutions　and　the　philosophy　of

history。



And　first；　as　regards　the　current　theories　of　the　primitive

condition　of　society；　there　was　a　wide　divergence　of　opinion　in

Hellenic　society；　just　as　there　is　now。　　For　while　the　majority　of

the　orthodox　public；　of　whom　Hesiod　may　be　taken　as　the

representative；　looked　back；　as　a　great　many　of　our　own　day　still

do；　to　a　fabulous　age　of　innocent　happiness；　a　BELL'　ETE　DELL'

AURO；　where　sin　and　death　were　unknown　and　men　and　women　were　like

Gods；　the　foremost　men　of　intellect　such　as　Aristotle　and　Plato；

AEschylus　and　many　of　the　other　poets　（1）　saw　in　primitive　man　'a

few　small　sparks　of　humanity　preserved　on　the　tops　of　mountains

after　some　deluge；'　'without　an　idea　of　cities；　governments　or

legislation；'　'living　the　lives　of　wild　beasts　in　sunless　caves；'

'their　only　law　being　the　survival　of　the　fittest。'



And　this；　too；　was　the　opinion　of　Thucydides；　whose　ARCHAEOLOGIA　as

it　is　contains　a　most　valuable　disquisition　on　the　early　condition

of　Hellas；　which　it　will　be　necessary　to　examine　at　some　length。



Now；　as　regards　the　means　employed　generally　by　Thucydides　for　the

elucidation　of　ancient　history；　I　have　already　pointed　out　how

that；　while　acknowledging　that　'it　is　the　tendency　of　every　poet　to

exaggerate；　as　it　is　of　every　chronicler　to　seek　to　be　attractive

at　the　expense　of　truth；　he　yet　assumes　in　the　thoroughly

euhemeristic　way；　that　under　the　veil　of　myth　and　legend　there　does

yet　exist　a　rational　basis　of　fact　discoverable　by　the　method　of

rejecting　all　supernatural　interference　as　well　as　any

extraordinary　motives　influencing　the　actors。　　It　is　in　complete

accordance　with　this　spirit　that　he　appeals；　for　instance；　to　the

Homeric　epithet　of　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇；　as

applied　to　Corinth；　as　a　proof　of　the　early　commercial　prosperity

of　that　city；　to　the　fact　of　the　generic　name　HELLENES　not

occurring　in　the　ILIAD　as　a　corroboration　of　his　theory　of　the

essentially　disunited　character　of　the　primitive　Greek　tribes；　and

he　argues　from　the　line　'O'er　many　islands　and　all　Argos　ruled；'　as

applied　to　Agamemnon；　that　his　forces　must　have　been　partially

naval；　'for　Agamemnon's　was　a　continental　power；　and　he　could　not

have　been　master　of　any　but　the　adjacent　islands；　and　these　would

not　be　many　but　through　the　possession　of　a　fleet。'



Anticipating　in　some　measure　the　comparative　method　of　research；　he

argues　from　the　fact　of　the　more　barbarous　Greek　tribes；　such　as

the　AEtolians　and　Acarnanians；　still　carrying　arms　in　his　own　day；

that　this　custom　was　the　case　originally　over　the　whole　country。

'The　fact；'　he　says；　'that　the　people　in　these　parts　of　Hellas　are

still　living　in　the　old　way　points　to　a　time　when　the　same　mode　of

life　was　equally　common　to　all。'　　Similarly；　in　another　passage；　he

shows　how　a　corroboration　of　his　theory　of　the　respectable

character　of　piracy　in　ancient　days　is　afforded　by　'the　honour　with

which　some　of　the　inhabitants　of　the　continent　still　regard　a

successful　marauder；'　as　well　as　by　the　fact　that　the　question；

'Are　you　a　pirate？'　is　a　common　feature　of　primitive　society　as

shown　in　the　poets；　and　finally；　after　observing　how　the　old　Greek

custom　of　wearing　belts　in　gymnastic　contests　still　survived　among

the　more　uncivilised　Asiatic　tribes；　he　observes　that　there　are

many　other　points　in　which　a　likeness　may　be　shown　between　the　life

of　the　primitive　Hellenes　and　that　of　the　barbarians　to…day。'



As　regards　the　evidence　afforded　by　ancient　remains；　while　adducing

as　a　proof　of　the　insecure　character　of　early　Greek　society　the

fact　of　their　cities　（2）　being　always　built　at　some　distance　from

the　sea；　yet　he　is　careful　to　warn　us；　and　the　caution　ought　to　be

borne　in　mind　by　all　archaeologists；　that　we　have　no　right　to

conclude　from　the　scanty　remains　of　any　city　that　its　legendary

greatness　in　primitive　times　was　a　mere　exaggeration。　　'We　are　not

justified；'　he　says；　'in　rejecting　the　tradition　of　the　magnitude

of　the　Trojan　armament；　because　Mycenae　and　the　other　towns　of　that

age　seem　to　us　small　and　insignificant。　　For；　if　Lacedaemon　was　to

become　desolate；　any　antiquarian　judging　merely　from　its　ruins

would　be　inclined　to　regard　the　tale　of　the　Spartan　hegemony　as　an

idle　myth；　for　the　city　is　a　mere　collection　of　villages　after　the

old　fashion　of　Hellas；　and　has　none　of　those　splendid　public

buildings　and　temples　which　characterise　Athens；　and　whose　remains；

in　the　case　of　the　latter　city；　would　be　so　marvellous　as　to　lead

the　superficial　observer　into　an　exaggerated　estimate　of　the

Athenian　power。'　　Nothing　can　be　more　scientific　than　the

archaeological　canons　laid　down；　whose　truth　is　strikingly

illustrated　to　any　one　who　has　compared　the　waste　fields　of　the

Eurotas　plain　with　the　lordly　monuments　of　the　Athenian　acropolis。

（3）



On　the　other　hand；　Thucydides　is　quite　conscious　of　the　value　of

the　positive　evidence　afforded　by　archaeological　remains。　　He

appeals；　for　instance；　to　the　character　of　the　armour　found　in　the

Delian　tombs　and　the　peculiar　mode　of　sepulture；　as　corroboration

of　his　theory　of　the　predominance　of　the　Carian　element　among　the

primitive　islanders；　and　to　the　concentration　of　all　the　temples

either　in　the　Acropolis；　or　in　its　immediate　vicinity；　to　the　name

of　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇　by　which　it　was　still

known；　and　to　the　extraordinary　sanctity　of　the　spring　of　water

there；　as　proof　that　the　primitive　city　was　originally　confined　to

the　citadel；　and　the　district　immediately　beneath　it　（ii。　16）。　　And

lastly；　in　the　very　opening　of　his　history；　anticipating　one　of　the

most　scientific　of　modern　methods；　he　points　out　how　in　early

states　of　civilisation　immense　fertility　of　the　soil　tends　to

favour　the　personal　aggrandisement　of　individuals；　and　so　to　stop

the　normal　progress　of　the　country　through　'the　rise　of　factions；

that　endless　source　of　ruin'；　and　also　by　the　allurements　it　offers

to　a　foreign　invader；　to　necessitate　a　continual　change　of

population；　one　immigration　following　on　another。　　He　exemplifies

his　theory　by　pointing　to　the　endless　political　revolutions　that

characterised　Arcadia；　Thessaly　and　Boeotia；　the　three　richest

spots　in　Greece；　as　well　as　by　the　negative　instance　of　the

undisturbed　state　in　primitive　time　of　Attica；　which　was　always

remarkable　for　the　dryness　and　poverty　of　its　soil。



Now；　while　undoubtedly　in　these　passages　we　may　recognise　the　first

anticipation　of　many　of　the　most　modern　principles　of　research；　we

must　remember　how　essentially　limited　is　the　range　of　the

ARCHAEOLOGIA；　and　how　no　theory　at　all　is　offered　on　the　wider

questions　of　the　general　conditions　of　the　rise　and　progress　of

humanity；　a　problem　which　is　first　scientifically　discussed　in　the

REPUBLIC　of　Plato。



And　at　the　outset　it　must　be　premised　that；　while　the　study　of

primitive　man　is　an　essentially　inductive　science；　resting　rather

on　the　accumulation　of　evidence　than　on　speculation；　among　the

Greeks　it　was　prosecuted　rather　on　deductive　principles。

Thucydides　did；　indeed；　avail　himself　of　the　opportunities　afforded

by　the　unequal　development　of　civilisation　in　his　own　day　in

Greece；　and　in　the　places　I　have　pointed　out　seems　to　have

anticipated　the　comparative　method。　　But　we　do　not　find　later

writers　availing　themselves　of　the　wonderfully　accurate　and

picturesque　accounts　given　by　Herodotus　of　the　customs　of　savage

tribes。　　To　take　one　instance；　which　bears　a　good　deal　on　modern

questions；　we　find　in　the　works　of　this　great　traveller　the　gradual

and　progressive　steps　in　the　development　of　the　family　life　clearly

manifested　in　the　mere　gregarious　herding　together　of　the

Agathyrsi；　their　primitive　kinsmanship　through　women　in　common；　and

the　rise　of　a　feeling　of　paternity　from　a　state　of　polyandry。　　This

tribe　stood　at　that　time　on　that　borderland　between　umbilical

relationship　and　the　family　which　has　been　such　a　difficult　point

for　modern　anthropologists　to　find。



The　ancient　authors；　however；　are　unanimous　in　insisting　that　the

family　is　the　ultimate　unit　of　society；　though；　as　I　have　said；　an

inductive　study　of　primitive　races；　or　even　the　accounts　given　of

them　by　Herodotus；　would　have　shown　them　that　the　＇Greek　text　which

cannot　be　reproduced＇　of　a　personal　household；　to　use　Plato's

expression；　is　really　a　most　complex　notion　appearing　always　in　a

late　stage　of　civilisation；　along　with　recognition　of　private

property　and　the　rights　of　individualism。



Philology　also；　which　in　the　hands　of　modern　investigators　has

proved　such　a　splendid　instrument　of　research；　was　in　ancient　days

studied　on　principles　too　unscientific　to　be　of　much　use。

Herodotus　points　out　that　the　word　ERIDANOS　is　essentially　Greek　in

character；　that　consequently　the　river　supposed　to　run　round　the

world　is　probably　a　mere　Greek　invention。　　His　remarks；　however；　on

language　generally；　as　in　the　case　of　PIROMIS　and　the　ending　of　the

Persian　names；　show　on　what　unsound　basis　his　knowledge　of　language

rested。



In　the　BACCHAE　of　Euripides　there　is　an　extremely　interesting

passage　in　which　the　immoral　stories　of　the　Greek　mythology　are

accounted　for　on　the　principle　of　that　misunderstanding　of　words

and　metaphors　to　which　modern　science　has　given　the　name　of　a

disease　of　language。　　In　answer　to　the　impious　rationalism　of

Pentheus　…　a　sort　of　modern　Philistine　…　Teiresias；　who　may　be

termed　the　Max　Muller　of　the　Theban　cycle；　points　out　that　the

story　of　Dionysus　being　inclosed　in　Zeus'　thigh　really　arose　from

the　linguistic　confusion　between　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be

reproduced＇　and　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇。



On　the　whole；　however　…　for　I　have　quoted　these　two　instances　only

to　show　the　unscientific　character　of　early　philology　…　we　may　say

that　this　important　instrument　in　recreating　the　history　of　the

past　was　not　really　used　by　the　ancients　as　a　means　of　historical

criticism。　　Nor　did　the　ancients　employ　that　other　method；　used　to

such　advantage　in　our　own　day；　by　which　in　the　symbolism　and

formulas　of　an　advanced　civilisation　we　can　detect　the　unconscious

survival　of　ancient　customs：　　for；　whereas　in　the　sham　capture　of

the　bride　at　a　marriage　feast；　which　was　common　in　Wale