essays and lectures-第1章

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Essays　and　Lectures



by　Oscar　Wilde












Contents



The　Rise　of　Historical　Criticism

The　English　Renaissance　of　Art

House　Decoration

Art　and　the　Handicraftman

Lecture　to　Art　Students

London　Models

Poems　in　Prose









THE　RISE　OF　HISTORICAL　CRITICISM









CHAPTER　I







HISTORICAL　criticism　nowhere　occurs　as　an　isolated　fact　in　the

civilisation　or　literature　of　any　people。　　It　is　part　of　that

complex　working　towards　freedom　which　may　be　described　as　the

revolt　against　authority。　　It　is　merely　one　facet　of　that

speculative　spirit　of　an　innovation；　which　in　the　sphere　of　action

produces　democracy　and　revolution；　and　in　that　of　thought　is　the

parent　of　philosophy　and　physical　science；　and　its　importance　as　a

factor　of　progress　is　based　not　so　much　on　the　results　it　attains；

as　on　the　tone　of　thought　which　it　represents；　and　the　method　by

which　it　works。



Being　thus　the　resultant　of　forces　essentially　revolutionary；　it　is

not　to　be　found　in　the　ancient　world　among　the　material　despotisms

of　Asia　or　the　stationary　civilisation　of　Egypt。　　The　clay

cylinders　of　Assyria　and　Babylon；　the　hieroglyphics　of　the

pyramids；　form　not　history　but　the　material　for　history。



The　Chinese　annals；　ascending　as　they　do　to　the　barbarous　forest

life　of　the　nation；　are　marked　with　a　soberness　of　judgment；　a

freedom　from　invention；　which　is　almost　unparalleled　in　the

writings　of　any　people；　but　the　protective　spirit　which　is　the

characteristic　of　that　people　proved　as　fatal　to　their　literature

as　to　their　commerce。　　Free　criticism　is　as　unknown　as　free　trade。

While　as　regards　the　Hindus；　their　acute；　analytical　and　logical

mind　is　directed　rather　to　grammar；　criticism　and　philosophy　than

to　history　or　chronology。　　Indeed；　in　history　their　imagination

seems　to　have　run　wild；　legend　and　fact　are　so　indissolubly　mingled

together　that　any　attempt　to　separate　them　seems　vain。　　If　we

except　the　identification　of　the　Greek　Sandracottus　with　the　Indian

Chandragupta；　we　have　really　no　clue　by　which　we　can　test　the　truth

of　their　writings　or　examine　their　method　of　investigation。



It　is　among　the　Hellenic　branch　of　the　Indo…Germanic　race　that

history　proper　is　to　be　found；　as　well　as　the　spirit　of　historical

criticism；　among　that　wonderful　offshoot　of　the　primitive　Aryans；

whom　we　call　by　the　name　of　Greeks　and　to　whom；　as　has　been　well

said；　we　owe　all　that　moves　in　the　world　except　the　blind　forces　of

nature。



For；　from　the　day　when　they　left　the　chill　table…lands　of　Tibet　and

journeyed；　a　nomad　people；　to　AEgean　shores；　the　characteristic　of

their　nature　has　been　the　search　for　light；　and　the　spirit　of

historical　criticism　is　part　of　that　wonderful　Aufklarung　or

illumination　of　the　intellect　which　seems　to　have　burst　on　the

Greek　race　like　a　great　flood　of　light　about　the　sixth　century　B。C。



L'ESPRIT　D'UN　SIECLE　NE　NAIT　PAS　ET　NE　MEURT　PAS　E　JOUR　FIXE；　and

the　first　critic　is　perhaps　as　difficult　to　discover　as　the　first

man。　　It　is　from　democracy　that　the　spirit　of　criticism　borrows　its

intolerance　of　dogmatic　authority；　from　physical　science　the

alluring　analogies　of　law　and　order；　from　philosophy　the　conception

of　an　essential　unity　underlying　the　complex　manifestations　of

phenomena。　　It　appears　first　rather　as　a　changed　attitude　of　mind

than　as　a　principle　of　research；　and　its　earliest　influences　are　to

be　found　in　the　sacred　writings。



For　men　begin　to　doubt　in　questions　of　religion　first；　and　then　in

matters　of　more　secular　interest；　and　as　regards　the　nature　of　the

spirit　of　historical　criticism　itself　in　its　ultimate　development；

it　is　not　confined　merely　to　the　empirical　method　of　ascertaining

whether　an　event　happened　or　not；　but　is　concerned　also　with　the

investigation　into　the　causes　of　events；　the　general　relations

which　phenomena　of　life　hold　to　one　another；　and　in　its　ultimate

development　passes　into　the　wider　question　of　the　philosophy　of

history。



Now；　while　the　workings　of　historical　criticism　in　these　two

spheres　of　sacred　and　uninspired　history　are　essentially

manifestations　of　the　same　spirit；　yet　their　methods　are　so

different；　the　canons　of　evidence　so　entirely　separate；　and　the

motives　in　each　case　so　unconnected；　that　it　will　be　necessary　for

a　clear　estimation　of　the　progress　of　Greek　thought；　that　we　should

consider　these　two　questions　entirely　apart　from　one　another。　　I

shall　then　in　both　cases　take　the　succession　of　writers　in　their

chronological　order　as　representing　the　rational　order　…　not　that

the　succession　of　time　is　always　the　succession　of　ideas；　or　that

dialectics　moves　ever　in　the　straight　line　in　which　Hegel　conceives

its　advance。　　In　Greek　thought；　as　elsewhere；　there　are　periods　of

stagnation　and　apparent　retrogression；　yet　their　intellectual

development；　not　merely　in　the　question　of　historical　criticism；

but　in　their　art；　their　poetry　and　their　philosophy；　seems　so

essentially　normal；　so　free　from　all　disturbing　external

influences；　so　peculiarly　rational；　that　in　following　in　the

footsteps　of　time　we　shall　really　be　progressing　in　the　order

sanctioned　by　reason。







CHAPTER　II







AT　an　early　period　in　their　intellectual　development　the　Greeks

reached　that　critical　point　in　the　history　of　every　civilised

nation；　when　speculative　invades　the　domain　of　revealed　truth；　when

the　spiritual　ideas　of　the　people　can　no　longer　be　satisfied　by　the

lower；　material　conceptions　of　their　inspired　writers；　and　when　men

find　it　impossible　to　pour　the　new　wine　of　free　thought　into　the

old　bottles　of　a　narrow　and　a　trammelling　creed。



From　their　Aryan　ancestors　they　had　received　the　fatal　legacy　of　a

mythology　stained　with　immoral　and　monstrous　stories　which　strove

to　hide　the　rational　order　of　nature　in　a　chaos　of　miracles；　and　to

mar　by　imputed　wickedness　the　perfection　of　God's　nature　…　a　very

shirt　of　Nessos　in　which　the　Heracles　of　rationalism　barely　escaped

annihilation。　　Now　while　undoubtedly　the　speculations　of　Thales；

and　the　alluring　analogies　of　law　and　order　afforded　by　physical

science；　were　most　important　forces　in　encouraging　the　rise　of　the

spirit　of　scepticism；　yet　it　was　on　its　ethical　side　that　the　Greek

mythology　was　chiefly　open　to　attack。



It　is　difficult　to　shake　the　popular　belief　in　miracles；　but　no　man

will　admit　sin　and　immorality　as　attributes　of　the　Ideal　he

worships；　so　the　first　symptoms　of　a　new　order　of　thought　are　shown

in　the　passionate　outcries　of　Xenophanes　and　Heraclitos　against　the

evil　things　said　by　Homer　of　the　sons　of　God；　and　in　the　story　told

of　Pythagoras；　how　that　he　saw　tortured　in　Hell　the　'two　founders

of　Greek　theology；'　we　can　recognise　the　rise　of　the　Aufklarung　as

clearly　as　we　see　the　Reformation　foreshadowed　in　the　INFERNO　of

Dante。



Any　honest　belief；　then；　in　the　plain　truth　of　these　stories　soon

succumbed　before　the　destructive　effects　of　the　A　PRIORI　ethical

criticism　of　this　school；　but　the　orthodox　party；　as　is　its　custom；

found　immediately　a　convenient　shelter　under　the　aegis　of　the

doctrine　of　metaphors　and　concealed　meanings。



To　this　allegorical　school　the　tale　of　the　fight　around　the　walls

of　Troy　was　a　mystery；　behind　which；　as　behind　a　veil；　were　hidden

certain　moral　and　physical　truths。　　The　contest　between　Athena　and

Ares　was　that　eternal　contest　between　rational　thought　and　the

brute　force　of　ignorance；　the　arrows　which　rattled　in　the　quiver　of

the　'Far　Darter'　were　no　longer　the　instruments　of　vengeance　shot

from　the　golden　bow　of　the　child　of　God；　but　the　common　rays　of　the

sun；　which　was　itself　nothing　but　a　mere　inert　mass　of　burning

metal。



Modern　investigation；　with　the　ruthlessness　of　Philistine　analysis；

has　ultimately　brought　Helen　of　Troy　down　to　a　symbol　of　the　dawn。

There　were　Philistines　among　the　Greeks　also　who　saw　in　the　＇Greek

text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇　a　mere　metaphor　for　atmospheric

power。



Now　while　this　tendency　to　look　for　metaphors　and　hidden　meanings

must　be　ranked　as　one　of　the　germs　of　historical　criticism；　yet　it

was　essentially　unscientific。　　Its　inherent　weakness　is　clearly

pointed　out　by　Plato；　who　showed　that　while　this　theory　will　no

doubt　explain　many　of　the　current　legends；　yet；　if　it　is　to　be

appealed　to　at　all；　it　must　be　as　a　universal　principle；　a　position

he　is　by　no　means　prepared　to　admit。



Like　many　other　great　principles　it　suffered　from　its　disciples；

and　furnished　its　own　refutation　when　the　web　of　Penelope　was

analysed　into　a　metaphor　of　the　rules　of　formal　logic；　the　warp

representing　the　premises；　and　the　woof　the　conclusion。



Rejecting；　then；　the　allegorical　interpretation　of　the　sacred

writings　as　an　essentially　dangerous　method；　proving　either　too

much　or　too　little；　Plato　himself　returns　to　the　earlier　mode　of

attack；　and　re…writes　history　with　a　didactic　purpose；　laying　down

certain　ethical　canons　of　historical　criticism。　　God　is　good；　God

is　just；　God　is　true；　God　is　without　the　common　passions　of　men。

These　are　the　tests　to　which　we　are　to　bring　the　stories　of　the

Greek　religion。



'God　predestines　no　men　to　ruin；　nor　sends　destruction　on　innocent

cities；　He　never　walks　the　earth　in　strange　disguise；　nor　has　to

mourn　for　the　death　of　any　well…beloved　son。　　Away　with　the　tears

for　Sarpedon；　the　lying　dream　sent　to　Agamemnon；　and　the　story　of

the　broken　covenant！'　　（Plato；　REPUBLIC；　Book　ii。　380；　iii。　388；

391。）



Similar　ethical　canons　are　applied　to　the　accounts　of　the　heroes　of

the　days　of　old；　and　by　the　same　A　PRIORI　principles　Achilles　is

rescued　from　the　charges　of　avarice　and　insolence　in　a　passage

which　may　be　recited　as　the　earliest　instance　of　that　'whitewashing

of　great　men；'　as　it　has　been　called；　which　is　so　popular　in　our

own　day；　when　Catiline　and　Clodius　are　represented　as　honest　and

far…seeing　politicians；　when　EINE　EDLE　UND　GUTE　NATUR　is　claimed

for　Tiberius；　and　Nero　is　rescued　from　his　heritage　of　infamy　as　an

accomplished　DILETTANTE　whose　moral　aberrations　are　more　than

excused　by　his　exquisite　artistic　sense　and　charming　tenor　voice。



But　besides　the　allegorising　principle　of　interpretation；　and　the

ethical　reconstruction　of　history；　there　was　a　third　theory；　which

may　be　called　the　semi…historical；　and　which　goes　by　the　name　of

Euhemeros；　though　he　was　by　no　means　the　first　to　propound　it。



Appealing　to　a　fictitious　monument　which　he　declared　that　he　had

discovered　in　the　island　of　Panchaia；　and　which　purported　to　be　a

column　erected　by　Zeus；　and　detailing　the　incidents　of　his　reign　on

earth；　this　shallow　thinker　attempted　to　show　that　the　gods　and

heroes　of　ancient　Greece　were　'mere　ordinary　mortals；　whose

achievements　had　been　a　good　deal　exaggerated　and　misrepresented；'

and　that　the　proper　canon　of　historical　criticism　as　regards　the

tr