the ancien regime-第3章

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1867







LECTURE　ICASTE







＇Delivered　at　the　Royal　Institution；　London；　1867。＇



These　Lectures　are　meant　to　be　comments　on　the　state　of　France

before　the　French　Revolution。　　To　English　society；　past　or　present；

I　do　not　refer。　　For　reasons　which　I　have　set　forth　at　length　in　an

introductory　discourse；　there　never　was　any　Ancien　Regime　in

England。



Therefore；　when　the　Stuarts　tried　to　establish　in　England　a　system

which　might　have　led　to　a　political　condition　like　that　of　the

Continent；　all　classes　combined　and　exterminated　them；　while　the

course　of　English　society　went　on　as　before。



On　the　contrary；　England　was　the　mother　of　every　movement　which

undermined；　and　at　last　destroyed；　the　Ancien　Regime。



From　England　went　forth　those　political　theories　which；　transmitted

from　America　to　France；　became　the　principles　of　the　French

Revolution。　　From　England　went　forth　the　philosophy　of　Locke；　with

all　its　immense　results。　　It　is　noteworthy；　that　when　Voltaire　tries

to　persuade　people；　in　a　certain　famous　passage；　that　philosophers

do　not　care　to　trouble　the　worldof　the　ten　names　to　whom　he　does

honour；　seven　names　are　English。　　〃It　is；〃　he　says；　〃neither

Montaigne；　nor　Locke；　nor　Boyle；　nor　Spinoza；　nor　Hobbes；　nor　Lord

Shaftesbury；　nor　Mr。　Collins；　nor　Mr。　Toland；　nor　Fludd；　nor　Baker；

who　have　carried　the　torch　of　discord　into　their　countries。〃　　It　is

worth　notice；　that　not　only　are　the　majority　of　these　names　English；

but　that　they　belong　not　to　the　latter　but　to　the　former　half　of　the

eighteenth　century；　and　indeed；　to　the　latter　half　of　the

seventeenth。



So　it　was　with　that　Inductive　Physical　Science；　which　helped　more

than　all　to　break　up　the　superstitions　of　the　Ancien　Regime；　and　to

set　man　face　to　face　with　the　facts　of　the　universe。　　From　England；

towards　the　end　of　the　seventeenth　century；　it　was　promulgated　by

such　men　as　Newton；　Boyle；　Sydenham；　Ray；　and　the　first　founders　of

our　Royal　Society。



In　England；　too；　arose　the　great　religious　movements　of　the

seventeenth　and　eighteenth　centuriesand　especially　that　of　a　body

which　I　can　never　mention　without　most　deep　respectthe　Society　of

Friends。　　At　a　time　when　the　greater　part　of　the　Continent　was　sunk

in　spiritual　sleep；　these　men　were　reasserting　doctrines　concerning

man；　and　his　relation　to　his　Creator；　which；　whether　or　not　all

believe　them　（as　I　believe　them）　to　be　founded　on　eternal　fact；　all

must　confess　to　have　been　of　incalculable　benefit　to　the　cause　of

humanity　and　civilisation。



From　England；　finally；　about　the　middle　of　the　eighteenth　century；

went　forthpromulgated　by　English　noblementhat　freemasonry　which

seems　to　have　been　the　true　parent　of　all　the　secret　societies　of

Europe。　　Of　this　curious　question；　more　hereafter。　　But　enough　has

been　said　to　show　that　England；　instead　of　falling；　at　any　period；

into　the　stagnation　of　the　Ancien　Regime；　was；　from　the　middle　of

the　seventeenth　century；　in　a　state　of　intellectual　growth　and

ferment　which　communicated　itself　finally　to　the　continental

nations。　　This　is　the　special　honour　of　England；　universally

confessed　at　the　time。　　It　was　to　England　that　the　slowly…awakening

nations　looked；　as　the　source　of　all　which　was　noble；　true；　and

free；　in　the　dawning　future。



It　will　be　seen；　from　what　I　have　said；　that　I　consider　the　Ancien

Regime　to　begin　in　the　seventeenth　century。　　I　should　date　its

commencementas　far　as　that　of　anything　so　vague；　unsystematic；

indeed　anarchic；　can　be　definedfrom　the　end　of　the　Thirty　Years'

War；　and　the　peace　of　Westphalia　in　1648。



For　by　that　time　the　mighty　spiritual　struggles　and　fierce　religious

animosities　of　the　preceding　century　had　worn　themselves　out。　　And；

as　always　happens；　to　a　period　of　earnest　excitement　had　succeeded

one　of　weariness；　disgust；　half…unbelief　in　the　many　questions　for

which　so　much　blood　had　been　shed。　　No　man　had　come　out　of　the

battle　with　altogether　clean　hands；　some　not　without　changing　sides

more　than　once。　　The　war　had　ended　as　one；　not　of　nations；　not　even

of　zealots；　but　of　mercenaries。　　The　body　of　Europe　had　been　pulled

in　pieces　between　them　all；　and　the　poor　soul　thereofas　was　to　be

expectedhad　fled　out　through　the　gaping　wounds。　　Life；　mere

existence；　was　the　most　pressing　need。　　If　men　couldin　the　old

prophet's　wordsfind　the　life　of　their　hand；　they　were　content。

High　and　low　only　asked　to　be　let　live。　　The　poor　asked　it

slaughtered　on　a　hundred　battle…fields；　burnt　out　of　house　and　home：

vast　tracts　of　the　centre　of　Europe　were　lying　desert；　the

population　was　diminished　for　several　generations。　　The　trading

classes；　ruined　by　the　long　war；　only　asked　to　be　let　live；　and　make

a　little　money。　　The　nobility；　too；　only　asked　to　be　let　live。　　They

had　lost；　in　the　long　struggle；　not　only　often　lands　and　power；　but

their　ablest　and　bravest　men；　and　a　weaker　and　meaner　generation　was

left　behind；　to　do　the　governing　of　the　world。　　Let　them　live；　and

keep　what　they　had。　　If　signs　of　vigour　still　appeared　in　France；　in

the　wars　of　Louis　XIV。　they　were　feverish；　factitious；　temporary

soon；　as　the　event　proved；　to　droop　into　the　general　exhaustion。　　If

wars　were　still　to　be　waged　they　were　to　be　wars　of　succession；　wars

of　diplomacy；　not　wars　of　principle；　waged　for　the　mightiest

invisible　interests　of　man。　　The　exhaustion　was　general；　and　to　it

we　must　attribute　alike　the　changes　and　the　conservatism　of　the

Ancien　Regime。　　To　it　is　owing　that　growth　of　a　centralising

despotism；　and　of　arbitrary　regal　power；　which　M。　de　Tocqueville　has

set　forth　in　a　book　which　I　shall　have　occasion　often　to　quote。　　To

it　is　owing；　too；　that　longing；　which　seems　to　us　childish；　after

ancient　forms；　etiquettes；　dignities；　court　costumes；　formalities

diplomatic；　legal；　ecclesiastical。　　Men　clung　to　them　as　to

keepsakes　of　the　pastrevered　relics　of　more　intelligible　and

better…ordered　times。　　If　the　spirit　had　been　beaten　out　of　them　in

a　century　of　battle；　that　was　all　the　more　reason　for　keeping　up　the

letter。　　They　had　had　a　meaning　once；　a　life　once；　perhaps　there　was

a　little　life　left　in　them　still；　perhaps　the　dry　bones　would　clothe

themselves　with　flesh　once　more；　and　stand　upon　their　feet。　　At

least　it　was　useful　that　the　common　people　should　so　believe。　　There

was　good　hope　that　the　simple　masses；　seeing　the　old　dignities　and

formalities　still　parading　the　streets；　should　suppose　that　they

still　contained　men；　and　were　not　mere　wooden　figures；　dressed

artistically　in　official　costume。　　And；　on　the　whole；　that　hope　was

not　deceived。　　More　than　a　century　of　bitter　experience　was　needed

ere　the　masses　discovered　that　their　ancient　rulers　were　like　the

suits　of　armour　in　the　Tower　of　Londonempty　iron　astride　of　wooden

steeds；　and　armed　with　lances　which　every　ploughboy　could　wrest　out

of　their　hands；　and　use　in　his　own　behalf。



The　mistake　of　the　masses　was　pardonable。　　For　those　suits　of　armour

had　once　held　living　men；　strong；　brave；　wise；　men　of　an　admirable

temper；　doing　their　work　according　to　their　light；　not　altogether

wellwhat　man　does　that　on　earth？but　well　enough　to　make

themselves　necessary　to；　and　loyally　followed　by；　the　masses　whom

they　ruled。　　No　one　can　read　fairly　the　〃Gesta　Dei　per　Francos　in

Oriente；〃　or　the　deeds　of　the　French　Nobility　in　their　wars　with

England；　or　those　taleshowever　legendaryof　the　mediaeval

knights；　which　form　so　noble　an　element　in　German　literature；

without　seeing；　that　however　black　were　these　men's　occasional

crimes；　they　were　a　truly　noble　race；　the　old　Nobility　of　the

Continent；　a　race　which　ruled　simply　because；　without　them；　there

would　have　been　naught　but　anarchy　and　barbarism。　　To　their

chivalrous　ideal　they　were　too　often；　perhaps　for　the　most　part；

untrue：　　but；　partial　and　defective　as　it　is；　it　is　an　ideal　such　as

never　entered　into　the　mind　of　Celt　or　Gaul；　Hun　or　Sclav；　one　which

seems　continuous　with　the　spread　of　the　Teutonic　conquerors。　　They

ruled　because　they　did　practically　raise　the　ideal　of　humanity　in

the　countries　which　they　conquered；　a　whole　stage　higher。　　They

ceased　to　rule　when　they　were；　through　their　own　sins；　caught　up　and

surpassed　in　the　race　of　progress　by　the　classes　below　them。



But；　even　when　at　its　best；　their　system　of　government　had　in　it

like　all　human　inventionoriginal　sin；　an　unnatural　and　unrighteous

element；　which　was　certain；　sooner　or　later；　to　produce　decay　and

ruin。　　The　old　Nobility　of　Europe　was　not　a　mere　aristocracy。　　It

was　a　caste：　　a　race　not　intermarrying　with　the　races　below　it。　　It

was　not　a　mere　aristocracy。　　For　that；　for　the　supremacy　of　the　best

men；　all　societies　strive；　or　profess　to　strive。　　And　such　a　true

aristocracy　may　exist　independent　of　caste；　or　the　hereditary

principle　at　all。　　We　may　conceive　an　Utopia；　governed　by　an

aristocracy　which　should　be　really　democratic；　which　should　use；

under　developed　forms；　that　method　which　made　the　mediaeval

priesthood　the　one　great　democratic　institution　of　old　Christendom；

bringing　to　the　surface　and　utilising　the　talents　and　virtues　of　all

classes；　even　to　the　lowest。　　We　may　conceive　an　aristocracy

choosing　out；　and　gladly　receiving　into　its　own　ranks　as　equals；

every　youth；　every　maiden；　who　was　distinguished　by　intellect；

virtue；　valour；　beauty；　without　respect　to　rank　or　birth；　and

rejecting　in　turn；　from　its　own　ranks；　each　of　its　own　children　who

fell　below　some　lofty　standard；　and　showed　by　weakliness；　dulness；

or　baseness；　incapacity　for　the　post　of　guiding　and　elevating　their

fellow…citizens。　　Thus　would　arise　a　true　aristocracy；　a　governing

body　of　the　really　most　worthythe　most　highly　organised　in　body

and　in　mindperpetually　recruited　from　below：　　from　which；　or　from

any　other　ideal；　we　are　yet　a　few　thousand　years　distant。



But　the　old　Ancien　Regime　would　have　shuddered；　did　shudder；　at　such

a　notion。　　The　supreme　class　was　to　keep　itself　pure；　and　avoid　all

taint　of　darker　blood；　shutting　its　eyes　to　the　fact　that　some　of

its　most　famous　heroes　had　been　born　of　such　left…handed　marriages

as　that　of　Robert　of　Normandy　with　the　tanner's　daughter　of　Falaise。

〃Some　are　so　curious　in　this　behalf；〃　says　quaint　old　Burton；

writing　about　1650；　〃as　these　old　Romans；　our　modern　Venetians；

Dutch；　and　French；　that　if　two　parties　dearly　love；　the　one　noble；

the　other　ignoble；　they　may　not；　by　their　laws；　match；　though　equal

otherwise　in　years；　fortunes；　education；　and　all　good　affection。　　In

Germany；　except　they　can　prove　their　gentility　by　three　descents；

they　scorn　to　match　with　them。　　A　nobleman　must　marry　a　noblewoman；

a　baron；　a　baron's　daughter；　a　knight；　a　knight's。　　As　slaters　sort

their　slates；　do　they　degrees　and　families。〃



And　doubtless　this　theorylike　all　which　have　held　their　ground　for

many　centuriesat　first　represented　a　fact。　　These　castes　were；　at

first