lecture iv-第5章

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Moscovite　princes　had　no　longer。　to　undertake　the　journey　in
person；　as　the　khans　had　consented　to　forward　the　charter　of
confirmation　direct　to　Moscow　on　condition　that　they　first
received　large　sums　of　money　from　the　prince　who　claimed　the
throne。　The　succession　was　settled　at　each　vacancy　by　an
agreement　between　the　suzerain　and　the　vassal；　and　the　popular
assembly　had　no　opportunity　of　interfering。
　　　　Foreign　events；　especially　the　rise　of　the　Florentine　Union
and　the　capture　of　Constantinople　by　the　Turks；　also　largely
contributed　to　the　increase　of　the　Moscovite　autocracy。
　　　　During　the　period　which　began　with　the　acceptance　of　the
tenets　of　the　Greek　Church　by　the　Russian　duke；　Vladimir；　at　the
end　of　the　eleventh　century；　and　which　ended　with　the　decision　of
the　Byzantine　Emperor　to　subscribe　the　act　of　union　with　the
Roman　Church；　the　Russian　State　as　well　as　the　Russian　Church
remained　to　a　certain　extent　dependent　on　the　Greek　Patriarch　and
Emperor　at　Constantinople。　In　ecclesiastical　matters　this
dependence　was　manifested　in　the　direct　nomination　of　the　Russian
Metropolitan　by　the　Byzantine　Patriarch；　very　often　not　without
interference　on　the　part　of　the　Emperor。　In　secular　matters　it
was　rather　theoretical　than　practical。　The　Russian　clergy　more
than　once　advised　the　Grand　Duke　of　Moscovy　to　recognise　the
〃Tzar　of　the　Greeks〃　as　his　lord　paramount；　and　each　time　they
repeated　the　popular　theory　that　the　Byzantine　Emperor　was　the
chief　of　the　whole　Christian　world　and　therefore　the　sovereign
lord　of　all　Christian　kings　and　potentates。　This　theory　had　been
first　brought　forward　by　Byzantine　writers；　who　actually　declared
that　Constantine　the　Great　had　conferred　the　title　of　Tabularius
on　the　ruler　of　Russia　as　a　recompense　for　his　allegiance　to　the
Greek　Empire。　Up　to　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century　the　title
of　〃Tzar〃　was　exclusively　applied　in　Russia　to　the　Emperor　of
Constantinople；　and　no　Russian　prince　was　allowed　to　dignify
himself　with　it。　The　Russian　clergy；　in　offering　public　prayer
for　the　health　of　the　Emperor　at　Constantinople；　spoke　of　him　as
of　〃the　Emperor　of　the　Romans　and　Ruler　of　the　Universe。〃（3*）
　　　　The　attitude　of　Basileus　III；　Grand　Duke　of　Russia；　during
the　time　of　the　Florentine　Union；　his　bold　opposition　to　the
Patriarch　Photius　and　to　any　compromise　with　the　Romish　Church；
led　the　Russian　clergy　to　look　upon　him　and　his　heirs　as　the
champions　of　orthodoxy　in　religion。　While　the　Duke　of　Moscovy　was
considered　the　sole　protector　of　the　Greek　Church；　the　Emperor　at
Constantinople　had　become；　in　the　eyes　of　the　Russians；　a
schismatic。　It　was　in　order　to　free　Moscovy　from　all　dependence
on　a　schismatic　Emperor　that　the　account　of　the　conversion　of　the
Eastern　Slavs　to　Christianity　was　altered。　The　apostle　St。
Andrew；　who；　according　to　Armenian　and　Georgian　traditions　had
been　the　first　to　preach　the　Gospel　in　the　Caucasus；　was
officially　declared　to　have　been　the　St。　John　the　Baptist　of　the
Russians；　Constantinople；　being　thus　deprived　of　the　honour　of
being　the　birthplace　of　Russian　Christianity；　was　accordingly
dispossessed　of　any　right　to　exercise　ecclesiastical　supremacy
over　the　Russian　Church。
　　　　The　fall　of　Constantinople；　which　closely　followed　the
Florentine　Union；　settled　the　question　of　the　ecclesiastical
autonomy　of　Russia；　and　contributed　at　the　same　time　to
strengthen　the　power　of　the　Moscovite　Duke。　The　Greek　Church　had
lost　her　secular　head　in　the　person　of　the　last　Emperor　of
Constantinople；　and　the　Slavonic　principalities　of　the　Balkan
Peninsula；　as　well　as　the　subjugated　Greeks；　naturally　turned
their　eyes　towards　the　most　powerful　of　the　Orthodox　rulers。　This
was　the　Grand　Duke　of　Moscovy；　whose　firm　allegiance　to　the
ancient　creed；　and　uncompromising　attitude　towards　the　Florentine
Union；　contrasted　favourably　with　the　attitude　of　the　last
Emperors　towards　the　Popes　of　Rome。　People　were　led　to
acknowledge　that　the　fall　of　Constantinople　was　a　well…deserved
punishment　on　a　schismatic　ruler；　and　they　were　also　induced　to
believe　that　the　conquest　of　that　city　by　the　Turks　ought　to　be
the　occasion　for　the　transfer　of　civil　supremacy　over　the　Greek
Church　from　Constantinople　to　Moscovy；　from　the　Emperor　to　the
Grand　Duke。
　　　　These　ideas　grew　in　strength　when　the　last　Emperor's　sister；
Sophia　Palaeologus；　became　by　marriage　the　wife　and　mother　of
Moscovite　Princes。　A　report　was　spread　that　the　imperial　title
had　been　transferred　to　the　Grand　Duke　Ivan　by　no　less　a　person
than　his　wife's　brother；　the　legal　heir　of　the　Byzantine　Empire。
The　Grand　Duke　was　anointed　with　great　solemnity；　and　received
the　title　of　〃Tzar；〃　a　title　which；　as　we　have　seen；　had　hitherto
been　exclusively　given　to　the　Greek　Emperors。　An　offer　which　the
German　Emperor　made　through　his　special　envoy；　Herbertstein；　to
grant　the　title　of　〃king〃　to　the　Moscovite　Grand　Duke　on
condition　of　his　recognising　his　dependence　upon　the　Holy　Roman
Empire；　was　solemnly　rejected；　and　in　order　to　confirm　the　new
theory　of　the　complete　autonomy　of　the　Russian　tzardom；　a
genealogy　was　invented；　showing　the　direct　descent　of　the　house
of　Rurik　from　Augustus　and　his　supposed　brother　Pruss；　the
mythical　founder　of　Prussia。　One　fact；　however；　stood　in　the　way
of　a　universal　recognition　of　these　new　pretensions　to　complete
autonomy；　that　was　the　continued　dependence　of　the　Moscovite
rulers　on　the　khans　of　the　Tartars。　But　this　was　put　an　end　to　by
Ivan　III；　who　was　consequently　the　first　to　adorn　himself　with
the　title　of　〃Autocrat〃　（Samoderjez）；　which　to　this　day　continues
to　be　the　title　of　the　Russian　Tzars。
　　　　As　Greek　monks；　and　among　them　the　well…known　Maxime；　began
to　settle　in　Russia；　Byzantine　ideas　about　the　derivation　of
monarchical　power　from　God；　which　were　already　entertained　by
some　of　our　monkish　writers；　were　rapidly　spread　among　the
people。　It　is　not　without　good　reason　that　the　celebrated
antagonist　of　Ivan　the　Terrible；　Prince　Kourbsky；　accuses　the
monks　of　having　been　the　chief　source　of　the　servile　theory；
according　to　which　〃the　Tzar；　in　order　to　preserve　his
independence；　ought　to　have　no　counsellors　more　intelligent　than
himself。〃　This　theory　was　accepted　with　avidity　by　such　tyrants
as　Ivan　the　Cruel；　who　refers　to　it　more　than　once　in　his
correspondence　with　the　Polish　king；　Stephen　Bathory。　The　fact
that　this　prince　was　surrounded　by　a　sort　of　parliament；　the
Polish　Seim；　was　declared　by　the　Russian　Tzar　to　be　a　manifest
proof　of　his　political　inferiority。　〃Autocracy　（samoderjavsto）；〃
according　to　Ivan's　idea；　〃was　impossible　with　an　elective
council；　the　autocrat　must　do　everything　by　himself；　he　has　to
give　orders　to　his　subjects；　and　these；　last　must　obey　like
serfs；　and　that　according　to　the　command　of　God。〃
　　　　These　ideas；　which　had　been　expressed　centuries　before　by
monkish　writers；　who　had　found　them　set　forth　in　Byzantine
treatises；　were　far　from　being　those　of　the　generality　of　Russian
statesmen　and　thinkers。　When　Prince　Kourbsky　advised　the　tyrant
Ivan　to　seek　good　and　useful　counsel；　not　only　among　the　members
of　his　douma；　a　sort　of　curia　regis　　but　also　among　the
representatives　of　the　people　　vsenarodnich　chelovok　　he　gave
utterance　to　an　old　political　desire。　Another　contemporary
writer；　the　unknown　author　of　The　Sermon　of　the　Saints　of　Walaam；
gives　way　to　the　same　feeling　in　the　following　terms：　〃The　clergy
ought　to　advise　the　Tzar　to　keep　a　constant　general　council；
composed　of　persons　coming　from　all　the　cities　and　districts　of
his　dominions。　Such　a　council　must　be　kept；　and　their　advice
taken　day　by　day　on　every　question　which　may　occur。〃　Two
different　institutions　were　meant　by　those　who　advised　the　Czar
to　rule　by　the　advice　of　his　councillors。　One　was　as　old　as　the
monarchy　itself；　and　belonged　to　those　old　customs；　which；
according　to　contemporary　writers；　had　been　scrupulously
maintained　by　former　potentates。　I　refer　to　the　council　of　the
Boyars　　the　Douma。　The　other　institution。　the　history　of　which
will　form　the　principal　subject　of　our　next　lecture；　was；　on　the
contrary；　quite　recent　　the　States…General　of　Moscovy；　the
Zemskii　Sobor。
　　　　I　will　conclude　what　I　have　to　say　on　the　political
organisation　of　Russia　during　that　intermediate　period　which
lasted　from　the　fall　of　the　ancient　folkmotes　to　the　convocation
of　the　States…General　by　a　description　of　the　first…named
council；　the　Douma。（4*）　The　study　of　the　internal　constitution　of
the　Douma　is　indispensable　for　the　comprehension　of　the　Part
which　the　higher　nobility　were　called　upon　to　play　in　the
management　of　the　Moscovite　State。　It　will　show　that　the　power　of
the　Moscovite　princes；　absolute　as　it　was；　was　yet　to　a　certain
extent　limited　by　the　power　of　the　nobility。　Up　to　the　middle　of
the　sixteenth　century　the　Boyars　were　the　only　persons　admitted
to　the　exercise　of　executive；　military；　and　judicial　authority。
Under　the　name　of　voevods　we　find　them　at　the　head　of　provinces；
commanding　their　military　forces　and　managing　their
administrative　interests。　As　members　of　the　Douma；　they　had　to
advise　the　Tzar　on　all　kinds　of　political；　executive；　military；
and　financial　questions。　No　law　was　promulgated　until　after
previous　deliberation　on　it　by　the　Douma。　The　same　Douma
furnished　the　chief　rulers　of　the　State　during　the　minority　of
the　Tzar；　and　it　was　in　this　way　that　the　power　of　the　Boyars
made　itself　felt　among　the　lower　classes　of　the　population；　who
soon　came　to　look　upon　them　as　the　chief　cause　of　their　misery。
　　　　The　composition　of　the　Moscovite　council　was　at　the　beginning
very　like　that　which　we　find　in　France　under　the　early　Capetian
kings。　The　curia　regis　was　chiefly　formed　from　among　the　high
court　officials；　such　as　the　majordome；　the　marshal；　the
constable；　the　chancellor　or　cancellarius；　the　camerer　or
camerarius；　etc。　The　same　may　be　said　of　the　Moscovite　Douma　of
the　fourteenth　century；　as　well　as　of　the　privy　council　of　each
and　every　of　the　principalities　into　which　medieval　Russia　was
divided　anterior　to　the　centralising　growth　of　the　Moscovite
power。　The　business　transacted　at　the　court　of　a　Russian　prince
being　distributed　among　different　departments；　the　heads　of　these
departments　were　summoned　to　sit　in　the　council　and　received　the
name　of　boyars。　Money　being　scarce；　the　boyars　were　paid　for
their　services　by　the　donation　of　crown　lands；　and　this　mode　of
payment　being　known　under　the　name　of　〃pont；〃　the　surname　of　the
boyars　was　〃poutevii　boyari。〃　Most　of　the　boyars　summoned　to　sit
in　the　Douma　were　exempted　from　military　service；　and　especially
from　the　duty　of　opposing　the　enemy　at　the　head　of　their　own
retainers；　not　so　much　in　the　open　country　as　in　their　own
castles。　Hence　the　origin　of　another　surname　〃wedennii　boiari〃
which　distinguished　the　most　powerful　members　of　the　Russian
medieval　nobility。　If　we　inquire　into　the　origin　of　those
admitted　to　the　princely　council；　we　shall　see　that　they　belonged
to　the　same　class　as　that　which　furnished　officers　to　the　army
and　the　chiefs　of　the　central　and　provincial　administration。　This
class　is　precisely　that　known　to　the　Anglo…Saxons　as　Thanes；　and
to　the　Merovingian　kings　under　t