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Shares 
♀2m DD facility 
Sales ♀millions
Finance 75 
Payback period 
The most popular method for evaluating investment decisions is the payback 
method。 To arrive at the payback period you have to work out how 
many years it takes to recover your cash investment。 Table 2。2 shows two 
investment projects that require respectively ♀20��000 and ♀40��000 cash now 
in order to get a series of cash returns spread over the next five years。 
Table 2。2 The payback method 
♀ ♀ 
Investment A Investment B 
Initial cash cost NOW ��Year 0�� 20��000 40��000 
Net cash flows 
Year 1 1��000 10��000 
Year 2 4��000 10��000 
Year 3 8��000 16��000 
Year 4 7��000 4��000 
Year 5 5��000 28��000 
Total cash in over period 25��000 68��000 
Cash surplus 5��000 28��000 
Although both propositions call for different amounts of cash to be invested�察�
we can see that both recover all their cash outlays by year 4。 So we 
can say these investments have a four´year payback。 But as a ma。。er of fact 
Investment B produces a much bigger surplus than the other project and it 
returns half our initial cash outlay in two years。 Investment A has returned 
only a quarter of our cash over that time period。 
Payback may be simple�察�but it is not much use when it es to dealing 
with the timing or with paring different investment amounts。 
Discounted cash flow 
We know intuitively that ge。。ing cash in sooner is be。。er than ge。。ing it in 
later。 In other words�察�a pound received now is worth more than a pound 
that will arrive in one�察�two or more years in the future because of what we 
could do with that money ourselves�察�or because of what we ourselves have 
to pay out to have use of that money ��see Cost of capital above��。 To make 
sound investment decisions we need to ascribe a value to a future stream 
76 The Thirty´Day MBA 
of earnings to arrive at what is known as the present value。 If we know 
we could earn 20 per cent on any money we have�察�then the maximum we 
would be prepared to pay for a pound ing in one year hence would 
be around 80p。 If we were to pay one pound now to get a pound back in a 
year¨s time we would in effect be losing money。 
The technique used to handle this is known as discounting。 The process 
is termed discounted cash flow ��DCF�� and the residual discounted cash is 
called the net present value。 
Table 2。3 Using discounted cash flow ��DCF�� 
♀ Discount factor Discounted 
Cash flow at 15�ァ�cash flow 
A B A 〜 B 
Initial cash cost NOW ��Year 0�� 20��000 1。00 20��000 
Net cash flows 
Year 1 1��000 0。8695 870 
Year 2 4��000 0。7561 3��024 
Year 3 8��000 0。6575 5��260 
Year 4 7��000 0。5717 4��002 
Year 5 5��000 0。4972 2��486 
Total 25��000 15��642 
Cash surplus 5��000 Net present 
value 
��4��358�� 
The first column in Table 2。3 shows the simple cash´flow implications of 
an investment proposition�察�a surplus of ♀5��000 es a。。er five years from 
pu。。ing ♀20��000 into a project。 But if we accept the proposition that future 
cash is worth less than current cash�察�the only question we need to answer is 
how much less。 If we take our weighted average cost of capital as a sensible 
starting point�察�we would select 13。4 per cent as an appropriate rate at which 
to discount future cash flows。 To keep the numbers simple and to add a 
small margin of safety�察�let¨s assume that 15 per cent is the rate we have 
selected ��this doesn¨t ma。。er too much�察�as you will see in the section on 
internal rate of return��。 
The formula for calculating what a pound received at some future date 
is�此�
Present Value ��PV�� = ♀P X 1 
��1��r��n
Finance 77 
where ♀P is the initial cash cost�察�r is the interest rate expressed in decimals 
and n is the year in which the cash will arrive。 So if we decide on a discount 
rate of 15 per cent�察�the present value of a pound received in one year¨s time 
is�此�
Present Value = ♀1 X 1 
��1 �� 0。15�� 1 = 0。87 ��rounded to two decimal places��。 
So we can see that our ♀1��000 arriving at the end of year 1 has a present 
value of ♀870�察�the ♀4��000 in year 2 has a present value of ♀3��024 and by 
year 5 present value reduces cash flows to barely half their original figure。 
In fact�察�far from having a real payback in year 4 and generating a cash 
surplus of ♀5��000�察�this project will make us ♀4��358 worse off than we had 
hoped to be if we required to make a return of 15 per cent。 The project�察�in 
other words�察�fails to meet our criteria using DCF but might well have been 
pursued using payback。 
Internal rate of return ��IRR�� 
DCF is a useful starting point but does not give us any definitive information。 
For example�察�all we know about the above project is that it doesn¨t 
make a return of 15 per cent。 In order to know the actual rate of return we 
need to choose a discount rate that produces a net present value of the entire 
cash flow of zero�察�known as the internal rate of return。 The maths is time 
consuming but Solutions Matrix website ��solutionmatrix�� has a 
tool for working out payback�察�discounted cash flow�察�internal rate of return�察�
and a whole lot more calculations relating to capital budgeting。 You have 
to register on the site first before downloading their free capital budgeting 
spreadsheet suite and tutorial。 From the home page you should click on 
`Download Center¨ and `Download Financial Metrics Lite for Microso。。 
Excel¨。 
Using this spreadsheet you will see that the IRR for the project in question 
is slightly under 7 per cent�察�not much be。。er than bank interest and certainly 
insufficient to warrant taking any risks for。 
BUDGETS AND VARIANCES 
Budgeting is the principal interface between the operating business units 
and the finance department。 As a staff function ��see Chapter 4 for more 
on line and staff functions���察�the finance department will assist managers 
in preparing a detailed budget for the year ahead for every area of the 
organization and is in effect the first year of the business plan。 MBAs are 
invariably expected to play a role in facilitating the process within their 
78 The Thirty´Day MBA 
departments。 Budgets are usually reviewed at least halfway through the 
year and o。。en quarterly。 At that review a further quarter or half year can be 
added to the budget to maintain a one´year budget horizon。 This is known 
as a `rolling quarterly ��half yearly�� budget¨。 
Budget guidelines 
Budgets should adhere to the following general principles�此�
。 The budget must be based on realistic but challenging goals。 Those goals 
are arrived at by both a top´down `aspiration¨ of senior management 
and a bo。。om´up forecast of what the department concerned sees as 
possible。 
。 The budget should be prepared by those responsible for delivering the 
results �C the salespeople should prepare the sales budget and the production 
people the production budget。 Senior managers must maintain 
the munication process so that everyone knows what other parties 
are planning for。 
。 Agreement to the budget should be explicit。 During the budgeting 
process�察�several versions of a particular budget should be discussed。 
For example�察�the boss may want a sales figure of ♀2 million�察�but the 
sales team¨s initial forecast is for ♀1。75 million。 
。 A。。er some debate�察 �1。9 million may be the figure agreed upon。 Once 
a figure is agreed�察�a virtual contract exists that declares a mitment 
from employees to achieve the target and mitments from the 
employer to be satisfied with the target and to supply resources in 
order to achieve it。 It makes sense for this contract to be in writing。 
。 The budget needs to be finalized at least a month before the start of the 
year and not weeks or months into the year。 
。 The budget should undergo fundamental reviews periodically throughout 
the year to make sure all the basic assumptions that underpin it still 
hold good。 
。 Accurate information to review performance against budgets should 
be available 7 to 10 working days before the month¨s end。 
Variance analysis 
Explaining variances is also an MBA´type task so performance needs to be 
carefully monitored and pared against the budget as the year proceeds�察�
and corrective action must be taken where necessary。 This has to be done on 
a monthly basis ��or using shorter time intervals if required���察�showing both 
the pany¨s performance during the month in question and throughout 
the year so far。
Finance 79 
Looking at Table 2。4�察�we can see at a glance that the business is behind 
on sales for this month�察�but ahead on the yearly target。 The convention is to 
put all unfavourable variations in brackets。 Hence�察�a higher´than´budgeted 
sales figure does not have brackets�察�while a higher materials cost does。 We 
can also see that�察�while profit is running ahead of budget�察�the profit margin 
is slightly behind �┬C0。30 per cent��。 
Table 2。4 The fixed budget 
Heading Month Year to date 
Budget Actual Variance Budget Actual Variance 
Sales 805* 753 ��52�� 6��358 7��314 956 
Materials 627 567 60 4��942 5��704 ��762�� 
Materials 
margin 
178 186 8 1��416 1��610 194 
Direct costs 74 79 ��5�� 595 689 ��94�� 
Gross profit 104 107 3 820 921 101 
Percentage 12。92 14。21 1。29 12。90 12。60 ��0。30�� 
* Figures indicate thousands of pounds 
This is partly because other direct costs�察�such as labour and distribution in 
this example�察�are running well ahead of budget。 
Flexing the budget 
A budget is based on a particular set of sales goals�察�few of which are likely 
to be exactly met in practice。 Table 2。4 shows a pany that has used 
♀762��000 more materials than budgeted。 As more has been sold�察�this is 
hardly surprising。 The way to manage this situation is to flex the budget 
to show what�察�given the sales that actually occurred�察�would be expected 
to happen to expenses。 Applying the budget ratios to the actual data does 
this。 For example�察�materials were planned to be 22。11 per cent of sales in 
the budget。 By applying that to the actual month¨s sales�察�a materials cost of 
♀587��000 is arrived at。 
Looking at the flexed budget in Table 2。5�察�we can see that the pany 
has spent ♀19��000 more than expected on the material given the level of 
sales actually achieved�察�rather than the ♀762��000 overspend shown in the 
fixed budget。 
The same principle holds for other direct costs�察�which appear to be running 
♀94��000 over budget for the year。 When we take into account the extra 
sales shown in the flexed budget�察�we can see that the pany has actually 
80 The Thirty´Day MBA 
spent ♀4��000 over budget on direct costs。 While this is serious�察�it is not as 
serious as the fixed budget suggests。 
The flexed budget allows you to concentrate your efforts on dealing with 
true variances in performance。 
The following website�察�SCORE ��score 〃 Business Tools 〃 
Template Gallery 〃 Sales Forecast���察�has a downloadable Excel spreadsheet 
from which you can make sales and cost projections on a trial and error 
basis。 Once you are satisfied with your projection�察�use the profit and loss 
projection ��score 〃 Business Tools 〃 Template Gallery 〃 Profit and 
Loss Projection ��3 Years���� to plete your budget。 
Seasonality and trends 
The figures shown for each period of the budget are not the same。 For 
example�察�a sales budget of ♀1。2 million for the year does not translate to 
♀100��000

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