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relief。 Taking tax relief at 40 per cent into account�察�the net cost of debt es 
down to 4。8 per cent。 In the case of a public offer for bonds or debentures�察�
the rate of interest which has to be paid on new loans to get them taken up 
by investors at par can be regarded as the cost of borrowed capital。
70 The Thirty´Day MBA 
Cost of equity 
Put simply�察�the cost of equity is the return shareholders expect the pany 
to earn on their money。 It is their estimation�察�o。。en not scientifically 
calculated�察�of the rate of return that will be obtained both from future 
dividends and an increased share value。 
Dividend valuation model 
One approach to finding the cost of equity is to take the current gross 
dividend yield for a pany and add the expected annual growth。 
Example 
For example�察�XYZ plc has forecast payment of a gross equivalent dividend 
of 10p on each ordinary share in the ing year。 The pany¨s shares 
are quoted on the Stock Exchange and currently trade at ♀2。00。 Growth of 
profits and dividends has averaged 15 per cent over the past few years。 The 
cost of equity for XYZ plc can be calculated as�此�
Cost of equity capital = Current dividend ��gross�� �ァ。� Growth rate �ァ�
Current market price = �─�0。10 〜 100�� �ァ。� 15�ァ�= 20�ァ�= ♀2 
With this method�察�dividends are assumed to grow in the future at the 
constant rate achieved by averaging the last few years¨ performance。 
Capital asset pricing model ��CAPM�� 
Before turning to the next method�察�we need to clarify some aspects of risk。 
There are two broad types of risk�此�
。 Specific risk�此�This applies to one particular business。 It includes�察�for 
example�察�the risk of losing the chief executive�察�the risk of someone else 
bringing out a similar or be。。er product�察�or the risk of labour problems。 
Shareholders are expected not to want pensation for this type of 
risk as it can be diversified away by holding a sufficient number of 
investments in their portfolios。 
。 Systematic risk�此�This derives from global or macroeconomic events 
that can damage all investments to some extent and therefore holders 
require pensation for this risk to their wealth。 This pensation 
takes the form of a higher required rate of return。 
A slightly more plicated approach to the cost of equity tries to take the 
systematic risk element into account。 It is known as the capital asset pricing 
model or CAPM for short。 Put simply�察�CAPM states that investors¨ required 
rate of return on a share is posed of two parts�此�a risk´free rate similar 
Finance 71 
to that obtainable on a risk´free investment in short´term government 
securities�察�and an additional premium to pensate for the systematic 
risk involved in investing in shares。 
This systematic risk for a pany¨s shares is measured by the size of its 
beta factor。 A beta the size of 1。0 for a pany means that its shares have 
the same systematic risk as the average for the whole market。 If the beta is 
1。4 then systematic risk for the share is 40 per cent higher than the market 
average。 A pany¨s share beta is applied to the market premium that is 
obtained from the excess of the return on a market portfolio of shares over 
the risk´free rate of return。 The formula to calculate cost of equity capital 
using CAPM is�此�
Ke = Rf �� B��Rm �C Rf�� 
Where�此�Ke = cost of equity�察�Rf = risk´free return�察�Rm = return on market 
portfolio of shares and B = beta factor。 
Example 
If the risk´free rate of return is 5。5 per cent and the return on a market 
portfolio is 12 per cent�察�then for a pany with a beta of 0。7 for its ordinary 
shares calculate its cost of equity。 
Ke = Rf �� B��Rm �C Rf�� 
= 5。5�ァ。� 0。7��12�ァ;C 5。5�ィ� 
= 10。05�ァ�
Of the two methods described for finding the cost of equity for a pany�察�
the la。。er CAPM method is the more scientific。 Ideally�察�the risk´free and 
market rates of return should reflect the future�察�but current rates of return 
are used as substitutes。 Beta factors measure how sensitive each pany¨s 
share price movements are relative to market movements over a period of 
a few years。 
The weakness of CAPM is that it assumes all investors are rational and 
well informed�察�that markets are perfect and that there is an unlimited supply 
of risk´free money。 There are even more plex models for calculating the 
cost of equity capital�察�but none are without their critics。 
Weighted average cost of capital 
Having identified the cost of equity and the cost of borrowed capital ��and 
that of any other long´term source of finance such as hire purchase or mortgages���察�
we need to bine them into one overall cost of capital。 This is 
primarily for use in project appraisals as justification of those that yield a 
return in excess of their cost of capital。
72 The Thirty´Day MBA 
An average cost is required because we do not usually identify each 
individual project with one particular source of finance。 Because equity and 
debt capital have very different costs�察�we would make illogical decisions and 
accept a project financed by debt capital only to reject a similar project next 
time round when it was financed by equity capital。 Generally businesses 
take the view that all projects have been financed from a mon pool 
of money except for the relatively rare case when project´specific finance 
is raised。 The weightings used in the calculations should be based on 
the market value of the securities and not on their book or balance sheet 
values。 
Example 
Assume your pany intends to keep the gearing ratio of borrowed capital 
to equity in the proportion of 20 �此�80。 The nominal cost of new capital 
from these sources has been assessed�察�say�察�at 10 per cent and 15 per cent 
respectively and corporation tax is 30 per cent。 The calculation of the overall 
weighted average cost is as follows�此�
Type of capital Proportion ��a�� A。。er´tax cost ��b�� Weighted cost ��a 〜 b�� 
10�ァ�loan capital 0。20 7。0�ァ�1。4�ァ�
Equity 0。80 15。0�ァ�12。0�ァ�
13。4�ァ�
The resulting weighted average cost of 13。4 per cent is the minimum rate 
that this pany should accept on proposed investments。 Any investment 
that is not expected to achieve this return is not a viable proposition。 Risk 
has been allowed for in the calculation of the beta factor used in the CAPM 
method of identifying the cost of equity。 This relates to the risk of the 
existing whole business。 If a pany embarks on a project of significantly 
different risk�察�or has a divisional structure of activities of varying risk levels�察�
then a single cost of equity for the whole pany is inappropriate。 In this 
situation�察�the average beta of proxy panies operating in the same field 
as a division can be used。 
INVESTMENT DECISIONS 
The cost of capital is an important figure as it is in essence the threshold 
for future investments。 Taking the figures shown above�察�if our weighted 
average cost of capital is 13。4 per cent then taking on any new activity that 
makes a lower profit ratio will be lowering the performance�察�hardly an 
MBA type of activity。 
Investment decisions�察�where the decisions have cost and revenue implications 
for years�察�perhaps even decades�察�fall into a number of categories��
Finance 73 
。 Bolt´on investments�此�These are where an investment will be supporting 
and enhancing an existing operation。 For example�察�if part of a production 
process is being slowed down for want of some new equipment to 
eliminate a bo。。leneck。 
。 Standalone single project�此�This involves a simple accept or reject 
decision。 
。 peting projects�此�This requires a choice of which produces the best 
results�察�either because only one can be pursued or because of limited 
finance。 In the la。。er case this is described as capital rationing。 
What follows is an examination of the financial aspects of investment 
decisions。 There may well be other strategic reasons for taking investment 
decisions�察�including those that might be more important than finance 
alone。 For example�察�it could be imperative to deny a petitor a particular 
opportunity�察�or if part of achieving a national or global strategy calls for 
disproportionate expenses in one or more areas。 However�察�there are NO 
circumstances when any investment decision should not be subjected to 
proper financial appraisal and so at least see the cost of accepting a lower 
return than required by the cost of capital being used。 
Also�察�it¨s important to note that any methodology for appraising investments 
requires that cash is used rather than profits�察�for reasons that will 
bee apparent as the techniques are explained。 Profit is not ignored�察�it is 
simply allowed to work its way through in the timing of events。 
COBRA BEER 
In 1990�察�Cambridge´educated and recently qualified accountant Karan 
Bilimoria started importing and distributing Cobra beer�察�a name he 
chose because it appeared to work well in lots of different languages。 
He initially supplied his beer to plement Indian restaurant food in 
the UK。 Lord Bilimoria�察�as he now is�察�started out with debts of ♀20��000�察�
but from a small flat in Fulham and with just a Citroen CV by way of 
assets he has grown his business to sales of over ♀100 million a year。 
Three factors have been key to its success。 Cobra was originally sold in 
large 660ml bottles and so were more likely to be shared by diners。 Also�察�
as Cobra is less fizzy than European lagers�察�drinkers are less likely to feel 
bloated and can eat and drink more。 The third factor was Bilimoria¨s 
extensive knowledge�察�through his training as an accountant�察�of sources 
of finance for a growing business。 He was fortunate in having an oldstyle 
bank manager who had such belief in Cobra that he agreed a 
loan of ♀30��000�察�but since then he has had to tap into every possible 
type of funding ��see Figure 2。1���察�including selling a 28 per cent stake in 
his firm in 1995。
Figure 2。1 Cobra Beer¨s financing strategy 
0 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80
1989 
1990 
1991 
1992 
1993 
1994 
1995 
1996 
1997 
1998 
1999 
2000 
2001 
2002 
2003 
2004 
Jul 89 ♀7K 
Overdraft 
Nov 89 
♀4K 
Overdraft 
Dec 89 
♀5K 
Overdraft 
Jul 90 
♀55K 
SFLGS 
Loan 
Feb 91 
♀100K Bill 
of 
Exchange 
Jan 92 
♀50K 
Preference 
Shares 
Feb 93 
75�ァ�
Advance 
Factoring 
Facility 
Oct 93 5�ァ�
Equity for 
♀50K 
Dec 93 
♀190K SFLGS 
Loan 
Oct 94 
♀200K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Dec 95 
♀500K 
Private 
Placement 
Sold 23�ァ�
Equity 
May 96 OD 
increased to 
♀30K 
Jun 96 
Invoice 
Finance 80�ァ�
Advance 
Sep 96 DD 
Facility 
♀75K 
Dec 97 OD 
increased to 
♀60K 
Jan 98 DD 
Facility 
♀125K 
Jul 98 
♀100K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Sep 98 NMB 
Heller 
Invoice 
Facility 
85�ァ�
Advance 
Nov 98 
♀750K 
Convertible 
Preference 
Shares 
Apr 99 OD 
raised to 
♀150K 
Aug 99 
DD 
Facility 
♀250K 
Jan 00 
Trade 
Finance 
Facility 
♀450K 
Universal 
Impex 
Aug 00 DD 
Facility 
♀350K 
Feb 01 DD 
Facility 
♀600K 
Jan 02 DD 
Facility 
♀1。6m 
Oct 2002 
OD facility 
♀400K HBOS 
♀1。65m loan 
HBOS 
♀2。5m 
replacement of 
Invoice 
discounting 
facility 
Apr 2003 
♀4m New 
Preference 
Shares 
♀2m DD facility 
Sales ♀millions
Finance 75 
Payback period 
The most popular method for eval

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