a history of science-4-第31章

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The　American　dentist　just　referred　to；　who　was；　with　one　exception　to　be　noted　presently；　the　first　man　in　the　world　to　conceive　that　the　administration　of　a　definite　drug　might　render　a　surgical　operation　painless　and　to　give　the　belief　application　was　Dr。　Horace　Wells；　of　Hartford；　Connecticut。　　The　drug　with　which　he　experimented　was　nitrous　oxidethe　same　that　Davy　had　used；　the　operation　that　he　rendered　painless　was　no　more　important　than　the　extraction　of　a　toothyet　it　sufficed　to　mark　a　principle；　the　year　of　the　experiment　was　1844。

The　experiments　of　Dr。　Wells；　however；　though　important；　were　not　sufficiently　demonstrative　to　bring　the　matter　prominently　to　the　attention　of　the　medical　world。　The　drug　with　which　he　experimented　proved　not　always　reliable；　and　he　himself　seems　ultimately　to　have　given　the　matter　up；　or　at　least　to　have　relaxed　his　efforts。　　But　meantime　a　friend；　to　whom　he　had　communicated　his　belief　and　expectations；　took　the　matter　up；　and　with　unremitting　zeal　carried　forward　experiments　that　were　destined　to　lead　to　more　tangible　results。　This　friend　was　another　dentist；　Dr。　W。　T。　G。　Morton；　of　Boston；　then　a　young　man　full　of　youthful　energy　and　enthusiasm。　He　seems　to　have　felt　that　the　drug　with　which　Wells　had　experimented　was　not　the　most　practicable　one　for　the　purpose；　and　so　for　several　months　he　experimented　with　other　allied　drugs；　until　finally　he　hit　upon　sulphuric　ether；　and　with　this　was　able　to　make　experiments　upon　animals；　and　then　upon　patients　in　the　dental　chair；　that　seemed　to　him　absolutely　demonstrative。

Full　of　eager　enthusiasm；　and　absolutely　confident　of　his　results；　he　at　once　went　to　Dr。　J。　C。　Warren；　one　of　the　foremost　surgeons　of　Boston；　and　asked　permission　to　test　his　discovery　decisively　on　one　of　the　patients　at　the　Boston　Hospital　during　a　severe　operation。　　The　request　was　granted；　the　test　was　made　on　October　16；　1846；　in　the　presence　of　several　of　the　foremost　surgeons　of　the　city　and　of　a　body　of　medical　students。　The　patient　slept　quietly　while　the　surgeon's　knife　was　plied；　and　awoke　to　astonished　comprehension　that　the　ordeal　was　over。　The　impossible；　the　miraculous；　had　been　accomplished。＇5＇

Swiftly　as　steam　could　carry　itslowly　enough　we　should　think　it　to…daythe　news　was　heralded　to　all　the　world。　It　was　received　in　Europe　with　incredulity；　which　vanished　before　repeated　experiments。　　Surgeons　were　loath　to　believe　that　ether；　a　drug　that　had　long　held　a　place　in　the　subordinate　armamentarium　of　the　physician；　could　accomplish　such　a　miracle。　But　scepticism　vanished　before　the　tests　which　any　surgeon　might　make；　and　which　surgeons　all　over　the　world　did　make　within　the　next　few　weeks。　　Then　there　came　a　lingering　outcry　from　a　few　surgeons；　notably　some　of　the　Parisians；　that　the　shock　of　pain　was　beneficial　to　the　patient；　hence　that　anaesthesiaas　Dr。　Oliver　Wendell　Holmes　had　christened　the　new　methodwas　a　procedure　not　to　be　advised。　　Then；　too；　there　came　a　hue…and…cry　from　many　a　pulpit　that　pain　was　God…given；　and　hence；　on　moral　grounds；　to　be　clung　to　rather　than　renounced。　But　the　outcry　of　the　antediluvians　of　both　hospital　and　pulpit　quickly　received　its　quietus；　for　soon　it　was　clear　that　the　patient　who　did　not　suffer　the　shock　of　pain　during　an　operation　rallied　better　than　the　one　who　did　so　suffer；　while　all　humanity　outside　the　pulpit　cried　shame　to　the　spirit　that　would　doom　mankind　to　suffer　needless　agony。　　And　so　within　a　few　months　after　that　initial　operation　at　the　Boston　Hospital　in　1846；　ether　had　made　good　its　conquest　of　pain　throughout　the　civilized　world。　Only　by　the　most　active　use　of　the　imagination　can　we　of　this　present　day　realize　the　full　meaning　of　that　victory。

It　remains　to　be　added　that　in　the　subsequent　bickerings　over　the　discoverysuch　bickerings　as　follow　every　great　advancetwo　other　names　came　into　prominent　notice　as　sharers　in　the　glory　of　the　new　method。　Both　these　were　Americansthe　one；　Dr。　Charles　T。　Jackson；　of　Boston；　the　other；　Dr。　Crawford　W。　Long；　of　Alabama。　　As　to　Dr。　Jackson；　it　is　sufficient　to　say　that　he　seems　to　have　had　some　vague　inkling　of　the　peculiar　properties　of　ether　before　Morton's　discovery。　He　even　suggested　the　use　of　this　drug　to　Morton；　not　knowing　that　Morton　had　already　tried　it；　but　this　is　the　full　measure　of　his　association　with　the　discovery。　　Hence　it　is　clear　that　Jackson's　claim　to　equal　share　with　Morton　in　the　discovery　was　unwarranted；　not　to　say　absurd。

Dr。　Long's　association　with　the　matter　was　far　different　and　altogether　honorable。　　By　one　of　those　coincidences　so　common　in　the　history　of　discovery；　he　was　experimenting　with　ether　as　a　pain…destroyer　simultaneously　with　Morton；　though　neither　so　much　as　knew　of　the　existence　of　the　other。　While　a　medical　student　he　had　once　inhaled　ether　for　the　intoxicant　effects；　as　other　medical　students　were　wont　to　do；　and　when　partially　under　influence　of　the　drug　he　had　noticed　that　a　chance　blow　to　his　shins　was　painless。　　This　gave　him　the　idea　that　ether　might　be　used　in　surgical　operations；　and　in　subsequent　years；　in　the　course　of　his　practice　in　a　small　Georgia　town；　he　put　the　idea　into　successful　execution。　There　appears　to　be　no　doubt　whatever　that　he　performed　successful　minor　operations　under　ether　some　two　or　three　years　before　Morton's　final　demonstration；　hence　that　the　merit　of　first　using　the　drug；　or　indeed　any　drug；　in　this　way　belongs　to　him。　But；　unfortunately；　Dr。　Long　did　not　quite　trust　the　evidence　of　his　own　experiments。　　Just　at　that　time　the　medical　journals　were　full　of　accounts　of　experiments　in　which　painless　operations　were　said　to　be　performed　through　practice　of　hypnotism；　and　Dr。　Long　feared　that　his　own　success　might　be　due　to　an　incidental　hypnotic　influence　rather　than　to　the　drug。　Hence　he　delayed　announcing　his　apparent　discovery　until　he　should　have　opportunity　for　further　testsand　opportunities　did　not　come　every　day　to　the　country　practitioner。　And　while　he　waited；　Morton　anticipated　him；　and　the　discovery　was　made　known　to　the　world　without　his　aid。　　It　was　a　true　scientific　caution　that　actuated　Dr。　Long　to　this　delay；　but　the　caution　cost　him　the　credit；　which　might　otherwise　have　been　his；　of　giving　to　the　world　one　of　the　greatest　blessingsdare　we　not；　perhaps；　say　the　very　greatest？that　science　has　ever　conferred　upon　humanity。

A　few　months　after　the　use　of　ether　became　general；　the　Scotch　surgeon　Sir　J。　Y。　Simpson＇6＇　discovered　that　another　drug；　chloroform；　could　be　administered　with　similar　effects；　that　it　would；　indeed；　in　many　cases　produce　anaesthesia　more　advantageously　even　than　ether。　From　that　day　till　this　surgeons　have　been　more　or　less　divided　in　opinion　as　to　the　relative　merits　of　the　two　drugs；　but　this　fact；　of　course；　has　no　bearing　whatever　upon　the　merit　of　the　first　discovery　of　the　method　of　anaesthesia。　　Even　had　some　other　drug　subsequently　quite　banished　ether；　the　honor　of　the　discovery　of　the　beneficent　method　of　anaesthesia　would　have　been　in　no　wise　invalidated。　And　despite　all　cavillings；　it　is　unequivocally　established　that　the　man　who　gave　that　method　to　the　world　was　William　T。　G。　Morton。


PASTEUR　AND　THE　GERM　THEORY　OF　DISEASE

The　discovery　of　the　anaesthetic　power　of　drugs　was　destined　presently；　in　addition　to　its　direct　beneficences；　to　aid　greatly　in　the　progress　of　scientific　medicine；　by　facilitating　those　experimental　studies　of　animals　from　which；　before　the　day　of　anaesthesia；　many　humane　physicians　were　withheld；　and　which　in　recent　years　have　led　to　discoveries　of　such　inestimable　value　to　humanity。　But　for　the　moment　this　possibility　was　quite　overshadowed　by　the　direct　benefits　of　anaesthesia；　and　the　long　strides　that　were　taken　in　scientific　medicine　during　the　first　fifteen　years　after　Morton's　discovery　were　mainly　independent　of　such　aid。　These　steps　were　taken；　indeed；　in　a　field　that　at　first　glance　might　seem　to　have　a　very　slight　connection　with　medicine。　Moreover；　the　chief　worker　in　the　field　was　not　himself　a　physician。　He　was　a　chemist；　and　the　work　in　which　he　was　now　engaged　was　the　study　of　alcoholic　fermentation　in　vinous　liquors。　Yet　these　studies　paved　the　way　for　the　most　important　advances　that　medicine　has　made　in　any　century　towards　the　plane　of　true　science；　and　to　this　man　more　than　to　any　other　single　individualit　might　almost　be　said　more　than　to　all　other　individualswas　due　this　wonderful　advance。　　It　is　almost　superfluous　to　add　that　the　name　of　this　marvellous　chemist　was　Louis　Pasteur。

The　studies　of　fermentation　which　Pasteur　entered　upon　in　1854　were　aimed　at　the　solution　of　a　controversy　that　had　been　waging　in　the　scientific　world　with　varying　degrees　of　activity　for　a　quarter　of　a　century。　　Back　in　the　thirties；　in　the　day　of　the　early　enthusiasm　over　the　perfected　microscope；　there　had　arisen　a　new　interest　in　the　minute　forms　of　life　which　Leeuwenhoek　and　some　of　the　other　early　workers　with　the　lens　had　first　described；　and　which　now　were　shown　to　be　of　almost　universal　prevalence。　These　minute　organisms　had　been　studied　more　or　less　by　a　host　of　observers；　but　in　particular　by　the　Frenchman　Cagniard　Latour　and　the　German　of　cell…theory　fame；　Theodor　Schwann。　　These　men；　working　independently；　had　reached　the　conclusion；　about　1837；　that　the　micro…organisms　play　a　vastly　more　important　role　in　the　economy　of　nature　than　any　one　previously　had　supposed。　They　held；　for　example；　that　the　minute　specks　which　largely　make　up　the　substance　of　yeast　are　living　vegetable　organisms；　and　that　the　growth　of　these　organisms　is　the　cause　of　the　important　and　familiar　process　of　fermentation。　They　even　came　to　hold；　at　least　tentatively；　the　opinion　that　the　somewhat　similar　micro…organisms　to　be　found　in　all　putrefying　matter；　animal　or　vegetable；　had　a　causal　relation　to　the　process　of　putrefaction。

This　view；　particularly　as　to　the　nature　of　putrefaction；　was　expressed　even　more　outspokenly　a　little　later　by　the　French　botanist　Turpin。　　Views　so　supported　naturally　gained　a　following；　it　was　equally　natural　that　so　radical　an　innovation　should　be　antagonized。　　In　this　case　it　chanced　that　one　of　the　most　dominating　scientific　minds　of　the　time；　that　of　Liebig；　took　a　firm　and　aggressive　stand　against　the　new　doctrine。　In　1839　he　promulgated　his　famous　doctrine　of　fermentation；　in　which　he　stood　out　firmly　against　any　〃vitalistic〃　explanation　of　the　phenomena；　alleging　that　the　presence　of　micro…organisms　in　fermenting　and　putrefying　substances　was　merely　incidental；　and　in　no　sense　causal。　　This　opinion　of　the　great　German　chemist　was　in　a　measure　substantiated　by　experiments　of　his　compatriot　Helmholtz；　whose　earlier　experiments　confirmed；　but　later　ones　contradicted；　the　observations　of　Schwann；　and　this　combined　authority　gave　the　vitalistic　conception　a　blow　from　which　it　had　not　rallied　at　the　time　when　Pasteur　entered　the　field。　　Indeed；　it　was　currently　regarded　as　settled　that　the　early　students　of　the　subject　had　vastly　over…estimated　the　importance　of　micro…organisms。

And　so　it　came　as　a　new　revelation　to　the　generality　of　scientists　of　the　time；　when；　in　1857　and　the　succeeding　half…decade；　Pasteur　published　the　results　of　his　researches；　in　which　the　question　had　been　put　t