history of philosophy-第28章

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experience　stands　in　opposition　to　knowledge　arising　from　the　speculative　Notion；　and　the
opposition　is　apprehended　in　so　acute　a　manner　that　the　knowledge　proceeding　from　the　Notion　is
ashamed　of　the　knowledge　from　experience；　just　as　this　again　takes　up　a　position　of　antagonism　to
the　knowledge　through　the　Notion。　What　Cicero　says　of　Socrates　may　be　said　of　Bacon；　that　he
brought　Philosophy　down　to　the　world；　to　the　homes　and　every…day　lives　of　men　（Vol。　I。　p。　389）。
To　a　certain　extent　knowledge　from　the　absolute　Notion　may　assume　an　air　of　superiority　over　this
knowledge；　but　it　is　essential；　as　far　as　the　Idea　is　concerned；　that　the　particularity　of　the　content
should　be　developed。　The　Notion　is　an　essential　matter；　but　as　such　its　finite　side　is　just　as
essential。　Mind　gives　presence；　external　existence；　to　itself；　to　come　to　understand　this　extension；
the　world　as　it　is；　the　sensuous　universe；　to　understand　itself　as　this；　i。e。；　with　its　manifest；　sensuous
extension；　is　one　side　of　things。　The　other　side　is　the　relation　to　the　Idea。　Abstraction　in　and　for
itself　must　determine　and　particularize　itself。　The　Idea　is　concrete；　self…determining；　it　has　the
principle　of　development；　and　perfect　knowledge　is　always　developed。　A　conditional　knowledge
in　respect　of　the　Idea　merely　signifies　that　the　working　out　of　the　development　has　not　yet
advanced　very　far。　But　we　have　to　deal　with　this　development；　and　for　this　development　and
determination　of　the　particular　from　the　Idea；　so　that　the　knowledge　of　the　universe；　of　nature；　may
be　cultivated　—　for　this；　the　knowledge　of　the　particular　is　necessary。　This　particularity　must　be
worked　out　on　its　own　account；　we　must　become　acquainted　with　empirical　nature；　both　with　the
physical　and　with　the　human。　The　merit　of　modern　times　is　to　have　accomplished　or　furthered
these　ends；　it　was　in　the　highest　degree　unsatisfactory　when　the　ancients　attempted　the　work。
Empiricism　is　not　merely　an　observing；　hearing；　feeling；　etc。；　a　perception　of　the　individual；　for　it
really　sets　to　work　to　find　the　species；　the　universal；　to　discover　laws。　Now　because　it　does　this；　it
comes　within　the　territory　of　the　Notion　—　it　begets　what　pertains　to　the　region　of　the　Idea；　it　thus
prepares　the　empirical　material　for　the　Notion；　so　that　the　latter　can　then　receive　it　ready　for　its
use。　If　the　science　is　perfected　the　Idea　must　certainly　issue　forth　of　itself；　science　as　such　no
longer　commences　from　the　empiric。　But　in　order　that　this　science　may　come　into　existence；　we
must　have　the　progression　from　the　individual　and　particular　to　the　universal　—　an　activity　which　is
a　reaction　on　the　given　material　of　empiricism　in　order　to　bring　about　its　reconstruction。　The
demand　of　a　priori　knowledge；　which　seems　to　imply　that　the　Idea　should　construct　from　itself；　is
thus　a　reconstruction　only；　or　what　is　in　religion　accomplished　through　sentiment　and　feeling。
Without　the　working　out　of　the　empirical　sciences　on　their　own　account；　Philosophy　could　not
have　reached　further　than　with　the　ancients。　The　whole　of　the　Idea　in　itself　is　science　as　perfected
and　complete；　but　the　other　side　is　the　beginning；　the　process　of　its　origination。　This　process　of　the
origination　of　science　is　different　from　its　process　in　itself　when　it　is　complete；　just　as　is　the　process
of　the　history　of　Philosophy　and　that　of　Philosophy　itself。　In　every　science　principles　are
commenced　with；　at　the　first　these　are　the　results　of　the　particular；　but　if　the　science　is　completed
they　are　made　the　beginning。　The　case　is　similar　with　Philosophy；　the　working　out　of　the　empirical
side　has　really　become　the　conditioning　of　the　Idea；　so　that　this　last　may　reach　its　full　development
and　determination。　For　instance；　in　order　that　the　history　of　the　Philosophy　of　modern　times　may
exist；　we　must　have　a　history　of　Philosophy　in　general；　the　process　of　Philosophy　during　so　many
thousand　years；　mind　must　have　followed　this　long；　road　in　order　that　the　Philosophy　may　be
produced。　In　consciousness　it　then　adopts　the　attitude　of　having　cut　away　the　bridge　from　behind
it；　it　appears　to　be　free　to　launch　forth　in　its　other　only；　and　to　develop　without　resistance　in　this
medium；　but　it　is　another　matter　to　attain　to　this　ether　and　to　development　in　it。　We　must　not
overlook　the　fact　that　Philosophy　would　not　have　come　into　existence　without　this　process；　for
mind　is　essentially　a　working　upon　something　different。

1。　Bacon’s　fame　rests　on　two　works。　In　the　first　place；　he　has　the　merit　of　having　in　his　work　De
augmentis　scientiarum　presented　to　us　a　systematic　encyclopedia　of　the　sciences；　an　outline
which　must　undoubtedly　have　caused　a　sensation　amongst　his　contemporaries。　It　is　important　to
set　before　men’s　eyes　a　well　arranged　picture　such　as　this　of　the　whole；　when　that　whole　has　not
been　grasped　in　thought。　This　encyclopedia　gives　a　general　classification　of　the　sciences；　the
principles　of　the　classification　are　regulated　in　accordance　with　the　differences　in　the　intellectual
capacities。　Bacon　thus　divides　human　learning　according　to　the　faculties　of　memory；　imagination；
and　reason；　for　he　distinguishes　what　pertains　（1）　to　memory；　（2）　to　imagination；　（3）　to　reason。
Under　memory　he　considered　history；　under　imagination；　poetry；　and　art；　and　finally；　under
reason；　philosophy。　（3）　According　to　his　favourite　method　of　division　these　again　are　further
divided；　since　he　brings　all　else　under　these　same　heads；　this　is；　however；　unsatisfactory。　To
history　belong　the　works　of　God　—　sacred；　prophetic；　ecclesiastical　history；　the　works　of　men　—
civil　and　literary　history；　and　likewise　the　works　of　nature；　and　so　on。　（4）　He　goes　through　these
topics　after　the　manner　of　his　time；　a　main　characteristic　of　which　is　that　anything　can　be　made
plausible　through　examples；　e。g。；　from　the　Bible。　Thus；　in　treating　of　Cosmetica；　he　says　in　regard
to　paint　that　“He　is　surprised　that　this　depraved　custom　of　painting　has　been　by　the　penal　laws　both
ecclesiastical　and　civil　so　long　overlooked。　In　the　Bible　we　read　indeed　of　Jezebel　that　she　painted
her　face；　but　nothing　of　the　kind　is　said　of　Esther　or　Judith。”　（5）　If　kings；　popes；　etc。；　are　being
discussed；　such　examples　as　those　of　Ahab　and　Solomon　must　be　brought　forward。　As　formerly　in
civil　laws　—　those　respecting　marriage；　for　instance　—　the　Jewish　forms　held　good；　in　Philosophy；
too；　the　same　are　still　to　be　found。　In　this　work　theology　likewise　appears　as　also　magic；　there　is
contained　in　it　a　comprehensive　system　of　knowledge　and　of　the　sciences。

The　arrangement　of　the　sciences　is　the　least　significant　part　of　the　work　De　augmentis
scientiarum。　It　was　by　its　criticism　that　its　value　was　established　and　its　effect　produced；　as　also
by　the　number　of　instructive　remarks　contained　in　it；　all　this　was　at　that　time　lacking　in　the
particular　varieties　of　learning　and　modes　of　discipline；　especially　in　as　far　as　the　methods　hitherto
adopted　were　faulty；　and　unsuitable　to　the　ends　in　view：　in　them　the　Aristotelian　conceptions　of　the
schools　were　spun　out　by　the　understanding　as　though　they　were　realities。　As　it　was　with　the
Schoolmen　and　with　the　ancients；　this　classification　is　still　the　mode　adopted　in　the　sciences；　in
which　the　nature　of　knowledge　is　unknown。　In　them　the　idea　of　the　science　is　advanced
beforehand；　and　to　this　idea　a　principle　foreign　to　it　is　added；　as　a　basis　of　division；　just　as　here　is
added　the　distinction　between　memory；　imagination　and　reason。　The　true　method　of　division　is
found　in　the　self…division　of　the　Notion；　its　separating　itself　from　itself。　In　knowledge　the　moment　of
self…consciousness　is　undoubtedly　found；　and　the　real　self…consciousness　has　in　it　the　moments　of
memory；　imagination　and　reason。　But　this　division　is　certainly　not　taken　from　the　Notion　of
self…consciousness；　but　from　experience；　in　which　self…consciousness　finds　itself　possessed　of
these　capacities。

2。　The　other　remarkable　feature　in　Bacon　is　that　in　his　second　work；　his　Organon；　he　sought　at
great　length　to　establish　a　new　method　in　learning；　in　this　regard　his　name　is　still　held　greatly　in
honour　by　many。　What　chiefly　distinguishes　his　system　is　his　polemical　attitude　towards　scholastic
methods　as　they　had　hitherto　existed；　towards　syllogistic　forms。　He　calls　these　methods
anticipationes　natur？；　in　them　men　begin　with　pre…suppositions；　definitions；　accepted　ideas；　with
a　scholastic　abstraction；　and　reason　further　from　these　without　regarding　that　which　is　present　in
actuality。　Thus　regarding　God　and　His　methods　of　operating　in　nature；　regarding　devils；　&c。；　they
make　use　of　passages　from　the　Bible；　such　as　“Sun；　stand　thou　still；”　in　order　to　deduce
therefrom　certain　metaphysical　propositions　from　which　they　go　further　still。　It　was　against　this　a
priori　method　that　Bacon　directed　his　polemic；　as　against　these　anticipations　of　nature　he　called
attention　to　the　explanation；　the　interpretation　of　nature。　（6）　“The　same　action　of　mind；”　he　says；
“which　discovers　a　thing　in　question；　judges　it；　and　the　operation　is　not　performed　by　the　help　of
any　middle　term；　but　directly；　almost　in　the　same　manner　as　by　the　sense。　For　the　sense　in　its
primary　objects　at　once　apprehends　the　appearance　of　the　object；　and　consents　to　the　truth
thereof。”　（7）　The　syllogism　is　altogether　rejected　by　Bacon。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　this　Aristotelian
deduction　is　not　a　knowledge　through　itself　in　accordance　with　its　content：　it　requires　a　foreign
universal　as　its　basis；　and　for　that　reason　its　movement　is　in　its　form　contingent。　The　content　is　not
in　unity　with　the　form；　and　this　form　is　hence　in　itself　contingent；　because　it；　considered　on　its　own
account；　is　the　movement　onwards　in　a　foreign　content。　The　major　premise　is　the　content　existent
for　itself；　the　minor　is　likewise　the　content　not　through　itself；　for　it　goes　back　into　the　infinite；　i。e。；　it
has　not　the　form　in　itself；　the　form　is　not　the　content。　The　opposite　may　always　be　made　out
equally　well　through　the　syllogism；　for　it　is　a　matter　of　indifference　to　this　form　what　content　is
made　its　basis。　“Dialectic　does　not　assist　in　the　discovery　of　the　arts；　many　arts　were　found　out　by
chance。”　（8）

It　was　not　against　this　syllogism　generally；　i。e。；　not　against　the　Notion　of　it　（for　Bacon　did　not
possess　this）；　but　against　deduction　as　it　was　put　into　operation；　as　it　was　to　the　scholastics　—　the
deduction　which　took　an　assumed　content　as　its　basis　—　that　Bacon　declaimed；　urging　that　the
content　of　experience　should　be　made　the　basis；　and　the　method　of　induction　pursued。　He
demanded　that　observations　on　nature　and　experiments　should　be　made　fundamental；　and　pointed
out　the　objects　whose　investigation　was　of　special　importance　in　the　interests　of　human　society；
and　so　on。　From　this　there　then　resulted　the　establishment　of　conclusions　through　induction　and
analogy。　（9）　In　fact　it　was　only　to　an　alteration　in　the　content　that；　without　being　aware　of　it；　Bacon
was　impelled。　For　though　he　rejected　the　syllogism　and　only　permitted　conclusions　to　be　reached
through　induction；　he　unconsciously　himself　drew　deductions；　likewise　all　these　champions　of
empiricism；　who　followed　after　him；　and　who　put　into