history of philosophy-第22章

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first　condition；　and　hence　we　never　can　be　slaves。　Were　the　mere　arbitrary　will　of　the　prince　a　law；
and　should　he　wish　slavery　to　be　introduced；　we　would　have　the　knowledge　that　this　could　not　be。
To　sleep；　to　live；　to　have　a　certain　office；　is　not　our　real　Being；　and　certainly　to　be　no　slave　is　such；
for　that　has　come　to　mean　the　being　in　nature。　Thus　in　the　West　we　are　upon　the　soil　of　a　veritable
Philosophy。

Because　in　desire　I　am　subject　to　another；　and　my　Being　is　in　a　particularity；　I　am；　as　I　exist；　unlike
myself；　for　I　am　〃I；〃　the　universal　complete；　but　hemmed　in　by　passion。　This　last　is　self…will　or
formal　freedom；　which　has　desire　as　content。　Amongst　the　Greeks　we　first　find　the　freedom　which
is　the　end　of　true　will；　the　equitable　and　right；　in　which　I　am　free　and　universal；　and　others；　too；　are
free；　are　also　〃I〃　and　like　me；　where　a　relationship　between　free　and　free　is　thus　established　with　its
actual　laws；　determinations　of　the　universal　will；　and　justly　constituted　states。　Hence　it　is　here　that
Philosophy　began。

In　Greece　we　first　see　real　freedom　flourish；　but　still　in　a　restricted　form；　and　with　a　limitation；
since　slavery　was　still　existent；　and　the　states　were　by　its　means　conditioned。　In　the　following
abstractions　we　may　first　of　all　superficially　describe　the　freedom　of　the　East；　of　Greece；　and　of
the　Teutonic　world。　In　the　East　only　one　individual　is　free；　the　despot；　in　Greece　the　few　are　free；
in　the　Teutonic　world　the　saying　is　true　that　all　are　free；　that　is；　man　is　free　as　man。　But　since　the
one　in　Eastern　countries　cannot　be　free　because　that　would　necessitate　the　others　also　being　free
to　him；　impulse；　self…will；　and　formal　freedom；　can　there　alone　be　found。　Since　in　Greece　we　have
to　deal　with　the　particular；　the　Athenians；　and　the　Spartans；　are　free　indeed；　but　not　the
Messenians　or　the　Helots。　The　principle　of　the　〃few〃　has　yet　to　be　discovered；　and　this　implies
some　modifications　of　the　Greek　point　of　view　which　we　must　consider　in　connection　with　the
History　of　Philosophy。　To　take　these　into　consideration　means　simply　to　proceed　to　the　dividing
up　of　Philosophy。




Introduction
　　C。　　Division；　Sources；　and　Method　Adopted
　　　　in　Treating　of　the　History　of　Philosophy。

1。　Division　of　the　History　of　Philosophy。

Since　we　set　to　work　systematically　this　division　must　present　itself　as　necessary。　Speaking
generally；　we　have　properly　only　two　epochs　to　distinguish　in　the　history　of　Philosophy；　as　in
ancient　and　modern　art…these　are　the　Greek　and　the　Teutonic。　The　Teutonic　Philosophy　is　the
Philosophy　within　Christendom　in　so　far　as　it　belongs　to　the　Teutonic　nations；　the
Christian…European　people；　inasmuch　as　they　belong　to　the　world　of　science　possess　collectively
Teutonic　culture；　for　Italy；　Spain；　France；　England；　and　the　rest；　have　through　the　Teutonic　nations；
received　a　new　form。　The　influence　of　Greece　also　reaches　into　the　Roman　world；　and　hence　we
have　to　speak　of　Philosophy　in　the　territory　of　the　Roman　world；　but　the　Romans　produced　no
proper　Philosophy　any　more　than　any　proper　poets。　They　have　only　received　from　and　imitated
others；　although　they　have　often　done　this　with　intelligence；　even　their　religion　is　derived　from　the
Greek；　and　the　special　character　that　it　has；　makes　no　approach　to　Philosophy　and　Art；　but　is
unphilosophical　and　inartistic。

A　further　description　of　these　two　outstanding　opposites　must　be　given。　The　Greek　world
developed　thought　as　far　as　to　the　Idea；　the　Christian　Teutonic　world；　on　the　contrary；　has
comprehended　Thought　as　Spirit；　Idea　and　Spirit　are　thus　the　distinguishing　features。　More
particularly　the　facts　are　as　follows。　Because　God；　the　still　undetermined　and　immediate　Universal；
Being；　or　objective　Thought；　jealously　allowing　nothing　to　exist　beside　Him；　is　the　substantial
groundwork　of　all　Philosophy；　which　never　alters；　but　ever　sinks　more　deeply　within　itself；　and
through　the　development　of　determinations　manifests　itself　and　brings　to　consciousness；　we　may
designate　the　particular　character　of　the　development　in　the　first　period　of　Philosophy　by　saying
that　this　development　is　a　simple　process　of　determinations；　figurations；　abstract　qualities；　issuing
from　the　one　ground　that　potentially　already　contains　the　whole。

The　second　stage　in　this　universal　principle　is　the　gathering　up　of　the　determinations　manifested
thus；　into　ideal；　concrete　unity；　in　the　mode　of　subjectivity。　The　first　determinations　as　immediate；
were　still　abstractions；　but　now　the　Absolute；　as　the　endlessly　self…determining　Universal；　must
furthermore　be　comprehended　as　active　Thought；　and　not　as　the　Universal　in　this　determinate
character。　Hence　it　is　manifested　as　the　totality　of　determinations　and　as　concrete　individuality。
Thus；　with　the　vo？s　of　Anaxagoras；　and　still　more　with　Socrates；　there　commences　a　subjective
totality　in　which　Thought　grasps　itself；　and　thinking　activity　is　the　fundamental　principle。

The　third　stage；　then；　is　that　this　totality；　which　is　at　first　abstract；　in　that　it　becomes　realized
through　the　active；　determining；　distinguishing　thought；　sets　itself　forth　even　in　the　separated
determinations；　which；　as　ideal；　belong　to　it。　Since　these　determinations　are　contained　unseparated
in　the　unity；　and　thus　each　in　it　is　also　the　other；　these　opposed　moments　are　raised　into　totalities。
The　quite　general　forms　of　opposition　are　the　universal　and　the　particular；　or；　in　another　form；
Thought　as　such；　external　reality；　feeling　or　perception。　The　Notion　is　the　identity　of　universal　and
particular；　because　each　of　these　is　thus　set　forth　as　concrete　in　itself；　the　universal　is　in　itself　at
once　the　unity　of　universality　and　particularity；　and　the　same　holds　good　of　particularity。　Unity　is
thus　posited　in　both　forms；　and　the　abstract　moments　can　be　made　complete　through　this　unity
alone；　thus　it　has　come　to　pass　that　the　differences　themselves　are　each　raised　up　to　a　system　of
totality；　which　respectively　confront　one　another　as　the　Philosophy　of　Stoicism　and　of
Epicureanism。　The　whole　concrete　universal　is　now　Mind；　and　the　whole　concrete　individual；
Nature。　In　Stoicism　pure　Thought　develops　into　a　totality；　if　we　make　the　other　side　from
Mind…natural　being　or　feeling…into　a　totality；　Epicureanism　is　the　result。　Each　determination　is
formed　into　a　totality　of　thought；　and；　in　accordance　with　the　simple　mode　which　characterizes　this
sphere；　these　principles　seem　to　be　for　themselves　and　independent；　like　two　antagonistic　systems
of　Philosophy。　Implicitly　both　are　identical；　but　they　themselves　take　up　their　position　as
conflicting；　and　the　Idea　is　also；　as　it　is　apprehended；　in　a　one…sided　determinateness。

The　higher　stage　is　the　union　of　these　differences。　This　may　occur　in　annihilation；　in　scepticism；　but
the　higher　point　of　view　is　the　affirmative；　the　Idea　in　relation　to　the　Notion。　If　the　Notion　is；　then；
the　universal…that　which　determines　itself　further　within　itself；　but　yet　remains　there　in　its　unity　and　in
the　ideality　and　transparency　of　its　determinations　which　do　not　become　independent…the　further
step　is；　on　the　other　hand；　the　reality　of　the　Notion　in　which　the　differences　are　themselves　brought
to　totalities。　Thus　the　fourth　stage　is　the　union　of　the　Idea；　in　which　all　these　differences；　as
totalities；　are　yet　at　the　same　time　blended　into　one　concrete　unity　of　Notion。　This　comprehension
first　takes　place　without　constraint；　since　the　ideal　is　itself　only　apprehended　in　the　element　of
universality。

The　Greek　world　got　as　far　as　this　Idea；　since　they　formed　an　ideal　intellectual　world；　and　this　was
done　by　the　Alexandrian　Philosophy；　in　which　the　Greek　Philosophy　perfected　itself　and　reached
its　end。　If　we　wish　to　represent　this　process　figuratively；

A。　Thought；　is　（a）　speaking　generally　abstract；　as　in　universal　or　absolute　space；　by　which　empty
space　is　often　understood；　（b）　then　the　most　simple　space　determinations　appear；　in　which　we
commence　with　the　point　in　order　that　we　may　arrive　at　the　line　and　angle；　（c）　what　comes　third　is
their　union　into　the　triangle；　that　which　is　indeed　concrete；　but　which　is　still　retained　in　this　abstract
element　of　surface；　and　thus　is　only　the　first　and　still　formal　totality　and　limitation　which
corresponds　to　the　vo？s。

B。　The　next　point　is；　that　since　we　allow　each　of　the　enclosing　lines　of　the　triangle　to　be　again
surface；　each　forms　itself　into　the　totality　of　the　triangle　and　into　the　whole　figure　to　which　it
belongs；　that　is　the　realization　of　the　whole　in　the　sides　as　we　see　it　in　Scepticism　or　Stoicism。

C。　The　last　stage　of　all　is；　that　these　surfaces　or　sides　of　the　triangle　join　themselves　into　a　body　or
a　totality：　the　body　is　for　the　first　time　the　perfect　spatial　determination；　and　that　is　a　reduplication
of　the　triangle。　But　in　as　far　as　the　triangle　which　forms　the　basis　is　outside　of　the　pyramid；　this
simile　does　not　hold　good。

Grecian　Philosophy　in　the　Neo…platonists　finds　its　end　in　a　perfect　kingdom　of　Thought　and　of
bliss；　and　in　a　potentially　existent　world　of　the　ideal；　which　is　yet　unreal　because　the　whole　only
exists　in　the　element　of　universality。　This　world　still　lacks　individuality　as　such；　which　is　an　essential
moment　in　the　Notion；　actuality　demands　that　in　the　identity　of　both　sides　of　the　Idea；　the
independent　totality　shall　be　also　posited　as　negative。　Through　this　self…existent　negation；　which　is
absolute　subjectivity；　the　Idea　is　first　raised　into　Mind。　Mind　is　the　subjectivity　of　self…knowledge；
but　it　is　only　Mind　inasmuch　as　it　knows　what　is　object　to　itself；　and　that　is　itself；　as　a　totality；　and
is　for　itself　a　totality。　That　is　to　say；　the　two　triangles　which　are　above　and　below　in　the　prism　must
not　be　two　in　the　sense　of　being　doubled；　but　they　must　be　one　intermingled　unity。　Or；　in　the　case
of　body；　the　difference　arises　between　the　centre　and　the　peripheral　parts。　This　opposition　of　real
corporeality　and　centre　as　the　simple　existence；　now　makes　its　appearance；　and　the　totality　is　the
union　of　the　centre　and　the　substantial…not；　however；　the　simple　union；　but　a　union　such　that　the
subjective　knows　itself　as　subjective　in　relation　to　the　objective　and　substantial。　Hence　the　Idea　is
this　totality；　and　the　Idea　which　knows　itself　is　essentially　different　from　the　substantial；　the　former
manifests　itself　independently；　but　in　such　a　manner　that　as　such　it　is　considered　to　be　for　itself
substantial。　The　subjective　Idea　is　at　first　only　formal；　but　it　is　the　real　possibility　of　the　substantial
and　of　the　potentially　universal；　its　end　is　to　realize　itself　and　to　identify　itself　with　substance。
Through　this　subjectivity　and　negative　unity；　and　through　this　absolute　negativity；　the　ideal　becomes
no　longer　our　object　merely；　but　object　to　itself；　and　this　principle　has　taken　effect　in　the　world　of
Christianity。　Thus　in　the　modern　point　of　view　the　subject　is　for　itself　free；　man　is　free　as　man；　and
from　this　comes　the　idea　that　because　he　is　Mind　he　has　from　his　very　nature　the　eternal　quality　of
being　substantial。　God　becomes　known　as　Mind　which　appears　to　itself　as　double；　yet　removes
the　difference　that　it　may　in　it　be　for　and　at　home　with　itself。　The　b