thoughts on man-第27章

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The　sentiments　of　the　ancient　Greeks　and　Romans；　for　so　many　centuries　as　their　institutions　retained　their　original　purity；　were　cast　in　a　mould　of　a　similar　nature。　　A　Spartan　was　seldom　alone；　they　were　always　in　society　with　each　other。　　The　love　of　their　country　and　of　the　public　good　was　their　predominant　passion；　they　did　not　imagine　that　they　belonged　to　themselves；　but　to　the　state。　　After　the　battle　of　Leuctra；　in　which　the　Spartans　were　defeated　by　the　Thebans；　the　mothers　of　those　who　were　slain　congratulated　one　another；　and　went　to　the　temples　to　thank　the　Gods；　that　their　children　had　done　their　duty；　while　the　relations　of　those　who　survived　the　defeat　were　inconsolable。

The　Romans　were　not　less　distinguished　by　their　self…denying　patriotism。　　It　was　in　this　spirit　that　Brutus　put　his　two　sons　to　death　for　conspiring　against　their　country。　　It　was　in　this　spirit　that　the　Fabii　perished　at　their　fort　on　the　Cremera；　and　the　Decii　devoted　themselves　for　the　public。　　The　rigour　of　self…denial　in　a　true　Roman　approached　to　a　temper　which　moderns　are　inclined　to　denominate　savage。

In　the　times　of　the　ancient　republics　the　impulse　of　the　citizens　was　to　merge　their　own　individuality　in　the　interests　of　the　state。　　They　held　it　their　duty　to　live　but　for　their　country。　　In　this　spirit　they　were　educated；　and　the　lessons　of　their　early　youth　regulated　the　conduct　of　their　riper　years。

In　a　more　recent　period　we　have　learned　to　model　our　characters　by　a　different　standard。　　We　seldom　recollect　the　society　of　which　we　are　politically　members；　as　a　whole；　but　are　broken　into　detached　parties；　thinking　only　for　the　most　part　of　ourselves　and　our　immediate　connections　and　attachments。

This　change　in　the　sentiments　and　manners　of　modern　times　has　among　its　other　consequences　given　birth　to　a　new　species　of　philosophy。　　We　have　been　taught　to　affirm；　that　we　can　have　no　express　and　pure　regard　for　our　fellow…creatures；　but　that　all　our　benevolence　and　affection　come　to　us　through　the　strainers　of　a　gross　or　a　refined　self…love。　　The　coarser　adherents　of　this　doctrine　maintain；　that　mankind　are　in　all　cases　guided　by　views　of　the　narrowest　self…interest；　and　that　those　who　advance　the　highest　claims　to　philanthropy；　patriotism；　generosity　and　self…sacrifice；　are　all　the　time　deceiving　others；　or　deceiving　themselves；　and　use　a　plausible　and　high…sounding　language　merely；　that　serves　no　other　purpose　than　to　veil　from　observation　〃that　hideous　sight；　a　naked　human　heart。〃

The　more　delicate　and　fastidious　supporters　of　the　doctrine　of　universal　self…love；　take　a　different　ground。　　They　affirm　that　〃such　persons　as　talk　to　us　of　disinterestedness　and　pure　benevolence；　have　not　considered　with　sufficient　accuracy　the　nature　of　mind；　feeling　and　will。　　To　understand；〃　they　say；　〃is　one　thing；　and　to　choose　another。　　The　clearest　proposition　that　ever　was　stated；　has；　in　itself；　no　tendency　to　produce　voluntary　action　on　the　part　of　the　percipient。　　It　can　be　only　something　apprehended　as　agreeable　or　disagreeable　to　us；　that　can　operate　so　as　to　determine　the　will。　　Such　is　the　law　of　universal　nature。　　We　act　from　the　impulse　of　our　own　desires　and　aversions；　and　we　seek　to　effect　or　avert　a　thing；　merely　because　it　is　viewed　by　us　as　an　object　of　gratification　or　the　contrary。

The　virtuous　man　and　the　vicious　are　alike　governed　by　the　same　principle；　and　it　is　therefore　the　proper　business　of　a　wise　instructor　of　youth；　and　of　a　man　who　would　bring　his　own　sentiments　and　feelings　into　the　most　praise…worthy　frame；　to　teach　us　to　find　our　interest　and　gratification　in　that　which　shall　be　most　beneficial　to　others。〃

When　we　proceed　to　examine　the　truth　of　these　statements；　it　certainly　is　not　strictly　an　argument　to　say；　that　the　advocate　of　self…love　on　either　of　these　hypotheses　cannot　consistently　be　a　believer　in　Christianity；　or　even　a　theist；　as　theism　is　ordinarily　understood。　　The　commandments　of　the　author　of　the　Christian　religion　are；　as　we　have　seen；　purely　disinterested：　　and；　especially　if　we　admit　the　latter　of　the　two　explanations　of　self…love；　we　shall　be　obliged　to　confess；　on　the　hypothesis　of　this　new　philosophy；　that　the　almighty　author　of　the　universe　never　acts　in　any　of　his　designs　either　of　creation　or　providence；　but　from　a　principle　of　self…love。　　In　the　mean　time；　if　this　is　not　strictly　an　argument；　it　is　however　but　fair　to　warn　the　adherents　of　the　doctrine　I　oppose；　of　the　consequences　to　which　their　theory　leads。　　It　is　my　purpose　to　subvert　that　doctrine　by　means　of　the　severest　demonstration；　but　I　am　not　unwilling；　before　I　begin；　to　conciliate；　as　far　as　may　be；　the　good…will　of　my　readers　to　the　propositions　I　proceed　to　establish。

I　will　therefore　further　venture　to　add；　that；　upon　the　hypothesis　of　self…love；　there　can　be　no　such　thing　as　virtue。　　There　are　two　circumstances　required；　to　entitle　an　action　to　be　denominated　virtuous。　　It　must　have　a　tendency　to　produce　good　rather　than　evil　to　the　race　of　man；　and　it　must　have　been　generated　by　an　intention　to　produce　such　good。　　The　most　beneficent　action　that　ever　was　performed；　if　it　did　not　spring　from　the　intention　of　good　to　others；　is　not　of　the　nature　of　virtue。　　Virtue；　where　it　exists　in　any　eminence；　is　a　species　of　conduct；　modelled　upon　a　true　estimate　of　the　good　intended　to　be　produced。　　He　that　makes　a　false　estimate；　and　prefers　a　trivial　and　partial　good　to　an　important　and　comprehensive　one；　is　vicious＇20＇。

＇20＇　Political　Justice；　Book　11；　Chap。　IV。


It　is　admitted　on　all　hands；　that　it　is　possible　for　a　man　to　sacrifice　his　own　existence　to　that　of　twenty　others。　　But　the　advocates　of　the　doctrine　of　self…love　must　say；　that　he　does　this　that　he　may　escape　from　uneasiness；　and　because　he　could　not　bear　to　encounter　the　inward　upbraiding　with　which　he　would　be　visited；　if　he　acted　otherwise。　　This　in　reality　would　change　his　action　from　an　act　of　virtue　to　an　act　of　vice。　　So　far　as　belongs　to　the　real　merits　of　the　case；　his　own　advantage　or　pleasure　is　a　very　insignificant　consideration；　and　the　benefit　to　be　produced；　suppose　to　a　world；　is　inestimable。　　Yet　he　falsely　and　unjustly　prefers　the　first；　and　views　the　latter　as　trivial；　nay；　separately　taken；　as　not　entitled　to　the　smallest　regard。　　If　the　dictates　of　impartial　justice　be　taken　into　the　account；　then；　according　to　the　system　of　self…love；　the　best　action　that　ever　was　performed；　may；　for　any　thing　we　know；　have　been　the　action；　in　the　whole　world；　of　the　most　exquisite　and　deliberate　injustice。　　Nay；　it　could　not　have　been　otherwise；　since　it　produced　the　greatest　good；　and　therefore　was　the　individual　instance；　in　which　the　greatest　good　was　most　directly　postponed　to　personal　gratification＇21＇。　　Such　is　the　spirit　of　the　doctrine　I　undertake　to　refute。

＇21＇　Political　Justice；　Book　IV；　Chap。　X。


But　man　is　not　in　truth　so　poor　and　pusillanimous　a　creature　as　this　system　would　represent。

It　is　time　however　to　proceed　to　the　real　merits　of　the　question；　to　examine　what　in　fact　is　the　motive　which　induces　a　good　man　to　elect　a　generous　mode　of　proceeding。

Locke　is　the　philosopher；　who；　in　writing　on　Human　Understanding；　has　specially　delivered　the　doctrine；　that　uneasiness　is　the　cause　which　determines　the　will；　and　urges　us　to　act。　　He　says＇22＇；　〃The　motive　we　have　for　continuing　in　the　same　state；　is　only　the　present　satisfaction　we　feel　in　it；　the　motive　to　change　is　always　some　uneasiness：　　nothing　setting　us　upon　the　change　of　state；　or　upon　any　new　action；　but　some　uneasiness。　　This　is　the　great　motive　that　works　on　the　mind。〃

＇22＇　Book　II；　Chap。　XXI；　Sect。　29。


It　is　not　my　concern　to　enquire；　whether　Locke　by　this　statement　meant　to　assert　that　self…love　is　the　only　principle　of　human　action。　　It　has　at　any　rate　been　taken　to　express　the　doctrine　which　I　here　propose　to　refute。

And；　in　the　first　place；　I　say；　that；　if　our　business　is　to　discover　the　consideration　entertained　by　the　mind　which　induces　us　to　act；　this　tells　us　nothing。　　It　is　like　the　case　of　the　Indian　philosopher＇23＇；　who；　being　asked　what　it　was　that　kept　the　earth　in　its　place；　answered；　that　it　was　supported　by　an　elephant；　and　that　elephant　again　rested　on　a　tortoise。　　He　must　be　endowed　with　a　slender　portion　of　curiosity；　who；　being　told　that　uneasiness　is　that　which　spurs　on　the　mind　to　act；　shall　rest　satisfied　with　this　explanation；　and　does　not　proceed　to　enquire；　what　makes　us　uneasy？

＇23＇　Locke　on　Understanding；　Book　11；　Chap。　XIII；　Sect。　19。


An　explanation　like　this　is　no　more　instructive；　than　it　would　be；　if；　when　we　saw　a　man　walking；　or　grasping　a　sword　or　a　bludgeon；　and　we　enquired　into　the　cause　of　this　phenomenon；　any　one　should　inform　us　that　he　walks；　because　he　has　feet；　and　he　grasps；　because　he　has　hands。

I　could　not　commodiously　give　to　my　thoughts　their　present　form；　unless　I　had　been　previously　furnished　with　pens　and　paper。　　But　it　would　be　absurd　to　say；　that　my　being　furnished　with　pens　and　paper；　is　the　cause　of　my　writing　this　Essay　on　Self…love　and　Benevolence。

The　advocates　of　self…love　have；　very　inartificially　and　unjustly；　substituted　the　abstract　definition　of　a　voluntary　agent；　and　made　that　stand　for　the　motive　by　which　he　is　prompted　to　act。　　It　is　true；　that　we　cannot　act　without　the　impulse　of　desire　or　uneasiness；　but　we　do　not　think　of　that　desire　and　uneasiness；　and　it　is　the　thing　upon　which　the　mind　is　fixed　that　constitutes　our　motive。　　In　the　boundless　variety　of　the　acts；　passions　and　pursuits　of　human　beings；　it　is　absurd　on　the　face　of　it　to　say　that　we　are　all　governed　by　one　motive；　and　that；　however　dissimilar　are　the　ends　we　pursue；　all　this　dissimilarity　is　the　fruit　of　a　single　cause。

One　man　chooses　travelling；　another　ambition；　a　third　study；　a　fourth　voluptuousness　and　a　mistress。　　Why　do　these　men　take　so　different　courses？

Because　one　is　partial　to　new　scenes；　new　buildings；　new　manners；　and　the　study　of　character。　　Because　a　second　is　attracted　by　the　contemplation　of　wealth　and　power。　　Because　a　third　feels　a　decided　preference　for　the　works　of　Homer；　or　Shakespear；　or　Bacon；　or　Euclid。　　Because　a　fourth　finds　nothing　calculated　to　stir　his　mind　in　comparison　with　female　beauty；　female　allurements；　or　expensive　living。

Each　of　these　finds　the　qualities　he　likes；　intrinsically　in　the　thing　he　chooses。　　One　man　feels　himself　strongly　moved；　and　raised　to　extacy；　by　the　beauties　of　nature；　or　the　magnificence　of　architecture。　　Another　is　ravished　with　the　divine　excellencies　of　Homer；　or　of　some　other　of　the　heroes　of　literature。　　A　third　finds　nothing　delights　him　so　much　as　the　happiness　of　others；　the　beholding　that　happiness　increased；　and　seeing　pain　and　oppression　and　sorrow　put　to　flight。　　The　cause　of　these　differences　is；　that　each　man　has　an　individual　internal　structure；　directing　his　partialities；　one　man　to　one　thing；　and　another　to　another。

Few　things　can　exceed　the　characters　of　human　beings　in　variety。　　There　must　be　something　abstractedly　in　the　nature　of　mind；　which　renders　it　accessible　to　these　varieties。　　For　the　present　we　will　call　it　taste。　　One　man　feels　his　spirits　regaled　　with　the　sight　of　those　things　which　constitute　wealth；　another