lect04-第2章

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sacredness　of　contracts；　and　it　is　well　known　that；　in　the






Germanic　countries；　their　ecclesiastical　societies　were　among　the






earliest　and　largest　grantees　of　public　or　'folk'　land　（Stubbs；






'Constitutional　History　'；　vol。　i。　p。　154）。　The　Will；　the






Contract；　and　the　Separate　Ownership　were　in　fact　indispensable






to　the　Church　as　the　donee　of　pious　gifts；　and　they　were　also






essential　and　characteristic　elements　in　the　civilisation　amid






which　the　Church　had　been　reared　to　maturity。　It　is　possible　that






the　compiler　of　the　Corus　Bescna　may　have　been　an　ecclesiastic；






as　he　certainly　would　have　been　in　any　society　except　the　Irish；






but；　if　he　were　a　lawyer；　he　writes　aS　a　lawyer　would　state　the






case　on　behalf　of　a　favourite　and　important　client。　Let　me　add






that　all　the　Brehon　writers　seem　to　me　to　have　a　bias　towards






private　or　several；　as　distinguished　from　collective；　property。






No　doubt　it　was　then；　as　always；　the　great　source　of　legal






business；　and　it　may　have　seemed　to　them；　and　it　possibly　was；






the　index　to　such　advance　in　civilisation　as　their　country　was






capable　of　making。






　　　　My　own　strong　opinion　is　that　the　'Fine；'　whose　rights　and






powers　are　the　principal　theme　of　the　Corus　Bescna；　and　whose






name　the　translators　render　'Tribe；'　is　neither　the　Tribe　in　its






largest　extension；　nor；　on　the　other　hand；　the　modern　Family　or






group　of　descendants　from　a　living　ancestor；　but　the　Sept。　It　is






a　body　of　kinsmen　whose　progenitor　is　no　longer　living；　but　whose






descent　from　him　is　a　reality；　and　neither　a　myth　nor　a　fiction。






It　is　the　Joint　Family　of　the　Hindoos；　but　with　the






characteristics　of　that　group　considerably　modified　through






settlement　on　the　land。　This　peculiar　assemblage　or　corporation






of　blood…relatives；　which　has　been　referred　to　by　me　several






times　before；　is　formed　by　the　continuance　of　the　family　union






through　several；　and　it　may　be　through　an　indefinite　number　of






generations。　The　rule　throughout　most　of　the　civilised　world　is






that；　for　all　purposes　of　law；　families　are　broken　up　into






individuals　or　dissolved　into　a　number　of　new　families　by　the






death　of　their　head。　But　this　is　not　necessary　the　case。　The






group　made　up　of　those　whom　we　vaguely　call　our　relatives　　of






our　brothers；　nephews；　great…uncles；　uncles；　and　cousins；　no　less






than　those　related　to　us　in　the　ascending　and　descending　lines　






might　very　well；　after　any　number　of　deaths；　remain　knitted






together　not　only　by　blood　and　affection；　but　by　mutual　rights






and　duties　prescribed　or　sanctioned　by　the　law。　An　association　of






this　sort　is　well　known　to　the　law　of　India　as　the　Joint






Undivided　Family；　or；　to　give　the　technical　description；　the






Family；　'joint　in　food；　worship；　and　estate。'　If　a　Hindoo　has






become　the　root　of　a　family　it　is　not　necessarily　separated　by






his　death；　his　children　continue　united　for　legal　purposes　as　a






corporate　brotherhood；　and　some　definite　act　of　one　or　more　of






the　brethren　is　required　to　effect　a　dissolution　of　the　plexus　of






mutual　rights　and　a　partition　of　the　family　property。　The　family






thus　formed　by　the　continuance　of　several　generations　in　union　is






identical　in　outline　with　a　group　very　familiar　to　the　students






of　the　older　Roman　law　　the　Agnatic　Kindred。　The　Agnates　were






that　assemblage　of　persons　who　would　have　been　under　the






patriarchal　authority　of　some　common　ancestor；　if　he　had　lived






long　enough　to　exercise　it。　The　Joint　Family　of　the　Hindoos　is






that　assemblage　of　persons　who　would　have　joined　in　the






sacrifices　at　the　funeral　of　some　common　ancestor；　if　he　had　died






in　their　lifetime。　In　the　last　case　the　sacerdotal　point　of　view






merely　takes　the　place　of　the　legal　or　civil。






　　　　So　far　as　we　are　able；　amid　the　disadvantages　under　which　we






are　placed　by　the　obscurity　of　our　authorities；　let　us　examine






the　legal　qualities　which　the　ancient　Irish　law　attributes　to






this　brotherhood　of　kinsmen　as　it　was　found　in　Ireland。　First　of






all；　the　'Tribe'　of　the　Brehon　tracts　is　a　corporate；　organic；






self…sustaining　unit。　'The　Tribe　sustains　itself。'　（'Ancient　Laws






of　Ireland；'　ii。　283。）　Its　continuity　has　begun　to　depend　on　the






land　which　it　occupies　　'land；'　says　one　of　the　still






unpublished　tracts；　'is　perpetual　man'　　but　it　is　not　a　purely






land…owning　body；　it　has　'live　chattels　and　dead　chattels；'






distinguished　from　those　of　individual　tribesmen。　（'Ancient　Laws






of　Ireland；'　ii。　289。）　Nor　is　it　a　purely　cultivating　body；　it






may　follow　a　professional　calling。　（Ibid。；　iii。　49…51。）　A　portion






of　the　tribal　domain；　probably　the　arable　and　choice　pasture






lands；　has　been　allotted　to　separate　households　of　tribesmen；　but






they　hold　their　allotments　subject　to　the　controlling　rights　of






the　entire　brotherhood；　and　the　primary　or　fundamental　rule　is






that　they　are　to　keep　their　shares　of　tribe…land　intact。　'Every






tribesman　is　able　to　keep　his　tribe…land；　he　is　not　to　sell　it　or






alienate　or　conceal　it；　or　give　it　to　pay　for　crimes　or






contracts。'　（'Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland；'　ii。　283。）　'No　person






should　leave　a　rent　upon　his　land　or　upon　his　tribe　which　he　did






not　find　upon　it。'　（Ibid。；　iii。　52；　53。）　'Everyone　is　wealthy　who






keeps　his　tribe…land　perfect　as　he　got　it；　who　does　not　leave






greater　debt　upon　it　than　he　found　on　it。'　（Ibid。；　iii。　55。）






　　　　Under　certain　circumstances　the　tribesman　may　alienate；　by






grant；　contract；　or　bequest；　a　certain　quantity　of　the　tribe…land






allotted　to　him；　but　what　are　the　circumstances；　and　what　the






quantity；　are　points　on　which　we　cannot　venture　to　make　any






precise　statement；　so　obscure　and　contradictory　are　the　rules　set






forth。　But　the　grantee　primarily　contemplated　is　certainly　the






Church；　though　it　seems　clear　that　there　is　a　general　power　of






alienation；　either　with　the　consent　of　the　entire　tribal






brotherhood　or　under　pressure　of　strong　necessity。　It　further






appears　to　be　beyond　question　that　the　tribesman　has　considerably






greater　power　of　disposition　over　property　which　he　has　acquired






than　over　property　which　has　devolved　on　him　as　a　member　of　a






tribe；　and　that　he　has　more　power　over　acquisitions　made　by　his






own　unaided　industry　than　over　acquisitions　made　through　profits






arising　from　the　cultivation　of　tribal　land。　'No　person　should






grant　land　except　such　as　he　has　purchased　himself；　unless　by　the






common　consent　of　the　tribe。　（'Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland；'　iii。　52；






53。）　'He　who　has　not　sold　or　bought　（i。e。；　he　who　keeps　his






tribeland　as　he　obtained　it）　is　allowed　to　make　grants；　each






according　to　his　dignity　（i。e。；　as　the　commentator　explains；　to






the　extent　of　one…third　or　one…half　of　his　tribe…land）。'　'He　who






neither　sells　nor　purchases　may　give　as　far　as　the　third　of　his






tribe…share　in　case　of　little　necessity　and　one…half　in　case　of






great　necessity'　（'Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland；'iii。　47。）　'If　it　be






land　that　acquires　it；　it　is　one…half；。。。　if　he　be　a　professional






man；　it　is　two…thirds　of　his　contracts　'　（iii。　49）。






　　　　The　distinction　between　acquired　property　and　property






inherited　or　received　from　kinsmen；　and　the　enlarged　power　of






parting　with　the　first；　are　found　in　many　bodies　of　ancient　law






　in　our　own　early　law　among　others。　The　rule　that　alienations；






otherwise　unlawful；　may　be　made　under　pressure　of　necessity；　is






found　in　many　parts　of　Hindoo　law。　The　rule　requiring　the　consent






of　the　collective　brotherhood　to　alienations；　with　many　minor






rules　of　this　part　of　Brehon　law；　constantly　forms　part　of　the






customs　of　Indian　and　Russian　village…communities；　and　the　duty






of　following　common　practices　of　tillage；　which　is　the　bequest






from　these　communities　which　lasted　longest　in　the　Germanic






countries；　is　classed　by　the　Corus　Bescna；　along　with　Marriage；






as　one　of　the　fundamental　institutions　of　the　irish　people。






（'Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland；'　iii。　17。）　But　much　the　most　striking






and　unexpected　analogies　in　the　Brehon　law　on　the　subject　of






Tribesmen　and　the　Tribe　are　those　which　it　has　with　the　Hindoo






law　of　Joint　Undivided　Families。　Under　the　Brahminical　Indian






law；　whenever　a　member　of　a　joint　family　has　acquired　property






through　special　scientific　knowledge　or　the　practice　of　a　liberal






art；　he　does　not　bring　it　into　the　common　fund；　unless　his






accomplishments　were　obtained　through　a　training　given　to　him　by






his　family　or　at　their　expense。　The　whole　law　on　the　subject　was






much　considered　in　a　strange　case　which　arose　before　the　High






Court　of　Madras　（'Madras　High　Court　Reports；'　ii。　56）；　where　a






joint　family　claimed　the　gains　of　a　dancing…girl。　The　decision　of






the　Court　is　thus　summarised　by　the　Reporter：　'The　ordinary　gains






of　science　are　divisible　（i。e。；　they　are　brought　into　hotchpot






upon　partition　of　an　undivided　estate）；　when　such　science　has






been　imparted　at　the　family　expense　and　acquired　while　receiving






a　family　maintenance。　It　is　otherwise　when　the　science　has　been






imparted　at　the　expense　of　persons　not　members　of　the　learner's






family。'　The　very　counterparts　of　the　Indian　rule　and　of　the






Indian　exception　are　found　in　the　ancient　Irish　law。　'If　（the






tribesman）　be　a　professional　man…that　is；　if　the　property　be






acquired　by　judicature　or　poetry；　or　any　profession　whatsoever　






he　is　capable　of　giving　two…thirds　of　it　to　the　Church。。。　but；　if






it　was　the　lawful　profession　of　his　tribe；　he　shall　not　give　of






the　emolument　of　his　profession　but　just　as　he　could　give　of　the






land　of　his　tribe。'　（Corus　Bescna；　'Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland；'






iii。　5。）　It　will　be　seen　from　the　instances　which　I　have　given






that　the　rules　of　the　Iri