the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第5章
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not content with this successe and good proceeding； to gather more
strength and win a greater name； shee entermingled with medicinable
receipts and religious ceremonies； the skill of Astrologie and arts
Mathematicall； presuming upon this； That all men by nature are very
curious and desirous to know their future fortunes； and what shall betide
them hereafter； persuading themselves； that all such foreknowledge
dependeth upon the course and influence of the starres； which give the
truest and most certain light of things to come。 Being thus wholly
possessed of men； and having their senses and understanding by this
meanes fast ynough bound with three sure chains； no marvell if this art
grew in processe of time to such an head； that it was and is at this day
reputed by most nations of the earth for the paragon and cheefe of all
sciences： insomuch as the mightie kings and monarchs of the Levant are
altogether ruled and governed thereby。〃
＇9＇ Breasted： Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt；
New York； 1912； p。 84。
＇10＇ The Historie of the World； commonly called the Naturall Historie
of C。 Plinius Secundus； translated into English by Philemon Holland；
Doctor in Physieke； London； 1601； Vol。 II； p。 371； Bk。 XXX； Chap。 I； Sect。
1。
The second world…wide practice which finds its earliest record among
the Egyptians is the use secretions and parts of the animal body as
medicine。 The practice was one of great antiquity with primitive man； but
the papyri already mentioned contain the earliest known records。 Saliva；
urine； bile； faeces； various parts of the body； dried and powdered； worms；
insects； snakes were important ingredients in the pharmacopoeia。 The
practice became very widespread throughout the ancient world。 Its extent
and importance may be best gathered from chapters VII and VIII in the
28th book of Pliny's 〃Natural History。〃 Several remedies are mentioned as
derived from man； others from the elephant； lion； camel； crocodile； and
some seventy…nine are prepared from the hyaena。 The practice was widely
prevalent throughout the Middle Ages； and the pharmacopoeia of the
seventeenth and even of the eighteenth century contains many
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extraordinary ingredients。 〃The Royal Pharmacopoeia〃 of Moses Charras
（London ed。； 1678）； the most scientific work of the day； is full of
organotherapy and directions for the preparation of medicines from the
most loathsome excretions。 A curious thing is that with the discoveries of
the mummies a belief arose as to the great efficacy of powdered mummy
in various maladies。 As Sir Thomas Browne remarks in his 〃Urn Burial〃：
〃Mummy has become merchandize。 Mizraim cures wounds； and Pharaoh
is sold for balsams。〃
One formula in everyday use has come to us in a curious way from the
Egyptians。 In the Osiris myth； the youthful Horus loses an eye in his battle
with Set。 This eye； the symbol of sacrifice； became； next to the sacred
beetle； the most common talisman of the country； and all museums are rich
in models of the Horus eye in glass or stone。
〃When alchemy or chemistry； which had its cradle in Egypt； and
derived its name from Khami； an old title for this country； passed to the
hands of the Greeks； and later of the Arabs； this sign passed with it。 It was
also adopted to some extent by the Gnostics of the early Christian church
in Egypt。 In a cursive form it is found in mediaeval translations of the
works of Ptolemy the astrologer； as the sign of the planet Jupiter。 As such
it was placed upon horoscopes and upon formula containing drugs made
for administration to the body； so that the harmful properties of these
drugs might be removed under the influence of the lucky planet。 At
present； in a slightly modified form； it still figures at the top of
prescriptions written daily in Great Britain （Rx）。〃＇11＇
＇11＇ John D。 Comrie： Medicine among the Assyrians and Egyptians in
1500 B。C。； Edinburgh Medical Journal； 1909； n。 s。； II； 119。
For centuries Egyptian physicians had a great reputation； and in the
Odyssey （Bk。 IV）； Polydamna； the wife of Thonis； gives medicinal plants
to Helen in Egypt〃a country producing an infinite number of drugs 。 。 。
where each physician possesses knowledge above all other men。〃
Jeremiah （xlvi； 11） refers to the virgin daughter of Egypt； who should in
vain use many medicines。 Herodotus tells that Darius had at his court
certain Egyptians； whom he reckoned the best skilled physicians in all the
world； and he makes the interesting statement that： 〃Medicine is practiced
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among them on a plan of separation； each physician treats a single
disorder； and no more： thus the country swarms with medical practitioners；
some under taking to cure diseases of the eye； others of the head； others
again of the teeth； others of the intestines； and some those which are not
local。〃＇12＇
＇12＇ The History of Herodotus； Blakesley's ed。； Bk。 II； 84。
A remarkable statement is made by Pliny； in the discussion upon the
use of radishes； which are said to cure a 〃Phthisicke；〃 or ulcer of the
lungs〃proofe whereof was found and seen in AEgypt by occasion that
the KK。 there； caused dead bodies to be cut up； and anatomies to be made；
for to search out the maladies whereof men died。〃＇13＇
＇13 Pliny； Holland's translation； Bk。 XIX； Chap。 V； Sect。 26。
The study of the anatomy of mummies has thrown a very interesting
light upon the diseases of the ancient Egyptians； one of the most prevalent
of which appears to have been osteo…arthritis。 This has been studied by
Elliot Smith； Wood Jones； Ruffer and Rietti。 The majority of the lesions
appear to have been the common osteo…arthritis； which involved not only
the men； but many of the pet animals kept in the temples。 In a much higher
proportion apparently than in modern days； the spinal column was
involved。 It is interesting to note that the 〃determinative〃 of old age in
hieroglyphic writing is the picture of a man afflicted with arthritis
deformans。 Evidences of tuberculosis； rickets and syphilis； according to
these authors； have not been found。
A study of the internal organs has been made by Ruffer； who has
shown that arterio…sclerosis with calcification was a common disease 8500
years ago； and he holds that it could not have been associated with hard
work or alcohol； for the ancient Egyptians did not drink spirits； and they
had practically the same hours of work as modern Egyptians； with every
seventh day free。
ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN MEDICINE
OF equally great importance in the evolution of medicine was the
practically contemporary civilization in Mesopotamia。 Science here
reached a much higher stage then in the valley of the Nile。 An elaborate
scheme of the universe was devised； a system growing out of the Divine
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Will； and a recognition for the first time of a law guiding and controlling
heaven and earth alike。 Here； too； we find medicine ancillary to religion。
Disease was due to evil spirits or demons。 〃These 'demons'invisible to
the naked eye were the precursors of the modern 'germs' and 'microbes；'
while the incantations recited by the priests are the early equivalents of the
physician's prescriptions。 There were different incantations for different
diseases； and they were as mysterious to the masses as are the mystic
formulas of the modern physician to the bewildered； yet trusting； patient。
Indeed； their mysterious character added to the power supposed to reside
in the incantations for driving the demons away。 Medicinal remedies
accompanied the recital of the incantations； but despite the considerable
progress made by such nations of hoary antiquity as the Egyptians and
Babylonians in the diagnosis and treatment of common diseases； leading
in time to the development of an extensive pharmacology； so long as the
cure of disease rested with the priests； the recital of sacred formulas；
together with rites that may be conveniently grouped under the head of
sympathetic magic； was regarded as equally essential with the taking of
the prescribed remedies。〃＇14＇
＇14＇ Morris Jastrow： The Liver in Antiquity and the Beginnings of
Anatomy。 Transactions College of Physicians； Philadelphia； 1907； 3。 s。；
XXIX； 117…138。
Three points of interest may be referred to in connection with
Babylonian medicine。 Our first recorded observations on anatomy are in
connection with the art of divination the study of the future by the
interpretation of certain signs。 The student recognized two divisions of
divination the involuntary； dealing with the interpretation of signs forced
upon our attention； such as the phenomena of the heavens； dreams； etc。；
and voluntary divination； the seeking of signs； more particularly through
the inspection of sacrificial animals。 This method reached an extraordinary
development among the Babylonians； and the cult spread to the Etruscans；
Hebrews； and later to the Greeks and Romans。
Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal the liver； from its
size； position and richness in blood； impressed the early observers as the
most important of the body。 Probably on account of the richness in blood
