the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第26章
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capable of building the Gothic cathedrals may well be called one of the
great epochs in history； and the age that produced Dante is a golden one in
literature。 Humanity has been the richer for St。 Francis； and Abelard；
Albertus and Aquinas form a trio not easy to match； in their special
departments； either before or after。 But in science； and particularly in
medicine； and in the advance of an outlook upon nature； the thirteenth
century did not help man very much。 Roger Bacon was 〃a voice crying in
the wilderness；〃 and not one of the men I have picked out as specially
typical of the period instituted any new departure either in practice or in
science。 They were servile followers； when not of the Greeks； of the
Arabians。 This is attested by the barrenness of the century and a half that
followed。 One would have thought that the stimulus given by Mundinus to
the study of anatomy would have borne fruit； but little was done in science
during the two and a half centuries that followed the delivery of his
lectures and still less in the art。 While William of Wykeham was building
Winchester Cathedral and Chaucer was writing the Canterbury Tales； John
of Gaddesden in practice was blindly following blind leaders whose
authority no one dared question。
The truth is； from the modern standpoint the thirteenth was not the true
dawn brightening more and more unto the perfect day； but a glorious
aurora which flickered down again into the arctic night of mediaevalism。
To sum upin medicine the Middle Ages represent a restatement from
century to century of the facts and theories of the Greeks modified here
and there by Arabian practice。 There was； in Francis Bacon's phrase； much
iteration； small addition。 The schools bowed in humble； slavish
submission to Galen and Hippocrates； taking everything from them but
their spirit and there was no advance in our knowledge of the structure or
function of the body。 The Arabians lit a brilliant torch from Grecian lamps
and from the eighth to the eleventh centuries the profession reached
among them a position of dignity and importance to which it is hard to
find a parallel in history。
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CHAPTER IV
THE RENAISSANCE AND THE RISE OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
THE 〃reconquest of the classic world of thought was by far the most
important achievement of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。 It absorbed
nearly the whole mental energy of the Italians。。。。 The revelation of what
men were and what they wrought under the influence of other faiths and
other impulses； in distant ages with a different ideal for their aim； not only
widened the narrow horizon of the Middle Ages； but it also restored self…
confidence to the reason of humanity。〃＇1＇
＇1＇ J。 A。 Symonds： The Renaissance in Italy； the Revival of Learning；
1877； p。 52。
Everywhere throughout the Middle Ages learning was the handmaid
of theology。 Even Roger Bacon with his strong appeal for a new method
accepted the dominant mediaeval convictionthat all the sciences did but
minister to their queen； Theology。 A new spirit entered man's heart as he
came to look upon learning as a guide to the conduct of life。 A revolution
was slowly effected in the intellectual world。 It is a mistake to think of the
Renaissance as a brief period of sudden fruitfulness in the North Italian
cities。 So far as science is concerned； the thirteenth century was an aurora
followed by a long period of darkness； but the fifteenth was a true dawn
that brightened more and more unto the perfect day。 Always a reflex of its
period； medicine joined heartily though slowly in the revolt against
mediaevalism。 How slowly I did not appreciate until recently。 Studying the
earliest printed medical works to catch the point of view of the men who
were in the thick of the movement up to 1480 which may be taken to
include the first quarter of a century of printing one gets a startling
record。 The mediaeval mind still dominates： of the sixty…seven authors of
one hundred and eighty…two editions of early medical books； twenty…three
were men of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries； thirty men of the
fifteenth century； eight wrote in Arabic； several were of the School of
Salernum； and only six were of classical antiquity； viz。； Pliny （first 1469）；
Hippocrates （1473） ＇Hain ＇*＇7247＇； Galen （1475） ＇Hain 7237＇； Aristotle
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（1476）； Celsus （1478）； and Dioscorides （1478）。＇**＇
＇*＇ This asterisk is used by Hain to indicate that he had seen a copy。
Ed。
＇**＇ Data added to a manuscript taken from the author's summary on
〃Printed Medical Books to 1480〃 in Transactions of the Bibliographical
Society； London； 1916； XIII； 5…8； revised from its 〃News…Sheet〃 （February；
1914）。 〃Of neither Hippocrates nor Galen is there an early edition； but in
1473 at Pavia appeared an exposition of the Aphorisms of Hippoerates；
and in 1475 at Padua an edition of the Tegni or Notes of Galen。〃 Ibid。； p。 6。
Osler's unfinished Illustrated Monograph on this subject is now being
printed for the Society of which he was President。Ed。
The medical profession gradually caught the new spirit。 It has been
well said that Greece arose from the dead with the New Testament in the
one hand and Aristotle in the other。 There was awakened a perfect passion
for the old Greek writers； and with it a study of the original sources； which
had now become available in many manuscripts。 Gradually Hippocrates
and Galen came to their own again。 Almost every professor of medicine
became a student of the MSS。 of Aristotle and of the Greek physicians；
and before 1530 the presses had poured out a stream of editions。 A wave
of enthusiasm swept over the profession； and the best energies of its best
minds were devoted to a study of the Fathers。 Galen became the idol of the
schools。 A strong revulsion of feeling arose against the Arabians； and
Avicenna； the Prince； who had been clothed with an authority only a little
less than divine； became anathema。 Under the leadership of the
Montpellier School； the Arabians made a strong fight； but it was a losing
battle all along the line。 This group of medical humanistsmen who were
devoted to the study of the old humanities； as Latin and Greek were
called has had a great and beneficial influence upon the profession。 They
were for the most part cultivated gentlemen with a triple interestliterature；
medicine and natural history。 How important is the part they played may
be gathered from a glance at the 〃Lives〃 given by Bayle in his 〃Biographic
Medicale〃 （Paris； 1855） between the years 1500 and 1575。 More than one
half of them had translated or edited works of Hippocrates or Galen； many
of them had made important contributions to general literature； and a large
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proportion of them were naturalists： Leonicenus； Linacre； Champier；
Fernel； Fracastorius； Gonthier； Caius； J。 Sylvius； Brasavola； Fuchsius；
Matthiolus； Conrad Gesner； to mention only those I know best； form a
great group。 Linacre edited Greek works for Aldus； translated works of
Galen； taught Greek at Oxford； wrote Latin grammars and founded the
Royal College of Physicians。＇*＇ Caius was a keen Greek scholar； an ardent
student of natural history； and his name is enshrined as co…founder of one
of the most important of the Cambridge colleges。 Gonthier； Fernel； Fuchs
and Mattioli were great scholars and greater physicians。 Champier； one of
the most remarkable of the group； was the founder of the Hotel Dieu at
Lyons； and author of books of a characteristic Renaissance type and of
singular bibliographical interest。 In many ways greatest of all was Conrad
Gesner； whose mors inopinata at forty…nine； bravely fighting the plague； is
so touchingly and tenderly mourned by his friend Caius。＇2＇ Physician；
botanist； mineralogist； geologist； chemist； the first great modern
bibliographer； he is the very embodiment of the spirit of the age。＇2a＇ On
the flyleaf of my copy of the 〃Bibliotheca Universalis〃 （1545）； is written a
fine tribute to his memory。 I do not know by whom it is； but I do know
from my reading that it is true：
＇*＇ Cf。 Osler： Thomas Linacre； Cambridge University Press； 1908。
Ed。
＇2＇ Joannis Caii Britanni de libris suis； etc。； 1570。
＇2a＇ See J。 C。 Bay： Papers Bibliog。 Soc。 of America； 1916； X； No。 2；
53…86。
〃Conrad Gesner； who kept open house there for all learned men who
came into his neighborhood。 Gesner was not only the best naturalist
among the scholars of his day； but of all men of that century he was the
pattern man of letters。 He was faultless in private life； assiduous in study；
diligent in maintaining correspondence and good…will with learned men in
all countries； hospitablethough his means were small to every scholar
that came into Zurich。 Prompt to serve all； he was an editor of other men's
volumes； a writer of prefaces for friends； a suggestor to young writers of
books on which they might engage themselves； and a great helper to them
in the progress of their work。 But still； while finding time for services to
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other men； he could produce as much out of his own study as though he
had no part in the life beyond its walls。〃
A large majority of these early naturalists and botanists were
physicians。＇3＇ The Greek art of observation was revived in a study of the
scientific writings of Aristotle； Theophrastus and Dioscorides and in
med
