wealbk01-第50章

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proportionably　higher　or　lower　than　that　of　other　butcher's　meat；

according　as　the　nature　of　the　country；　and　the　state　of　its

agriculture；　happen　to　render　the　feeding　of　hogs　more　or　less

expensive　than　that　of　other　cattle。　In　France；　according　to　Mr。

Buffon；　the　price　of　pork　is　nearly　equal　to　that　of　beef。　In

most　parts　of　Great　Britain　it　is　at　present　somewhat　higher。

　　　　　The　great　rise　in　the　price　of　both　hogs　and　poultry　has　in

Great　Britain　been　frequently　imputed　to　the　diminution　of　the

number　of　cottagers　and　other　small　occupiers　of　land；　an　event

which　has　in　every　part　of　Europe　been　the　immediate　forerunner

of　improvement　and　better　cultivation；　but　which　at　the　same　time

may　have　contributed　to　raise　the　price　of　those　articles　both

somewhat　sooner　and　somewhat　faster　than　it　would　otherwise　have

risen。　As　the　poorest　family　can　often　maintain　a　cat　or　a　dog

without　any　expense；　so　the　poorest　occupiers　of　land　can

commonly　maintain　a　few　poultry；　or　a　sow　and　a　few　pigs；　at　very

little。　The　little　offals　of　their　own　table；　their　whey；　skimmed

milk；　and　buttermilk；　supply　those　animals　with　a　part　of　their

food；　and　they　find　the　rest　in　the　neighbouring　fields　without

doing　any　sensible　damage　to　anybody。　By　diminishing　the　number

of　those　small　occupiers；　therefore；　the　quantity　of　this　sort　of

provisions；　which　is　thus　produced　at　little　or　no　expense；　must

certainly　have　been　a　good　deal　diminished；　and　their　price　must

consequently　have　been　raised　both　sooner　and　faster　than　it

would　otherwise　have　risen。　Sooner　or　later；　however；　in　the

progress　of　improvement；　it　must　at　any　rate　have　risen　to　the

utmost　height　to　which　it　is　capable　of　rising；　or　to　the　price

which　pays　the　labour　and　expense　of　cultivating　the　land　which

furnishes　them　with　food　as　well　as　these　are　paid　upon　the

greater　part　of　other　cultivated　land。

　　　　　The　business　of　the　dairy；　like　the　feeding　of　hogs　and

poultry；　is　originally　carried　on　as　a　save…all。　The　cattle

necessarily　kept　upon　the　farm　produce　more　milk　than　either　the

rearing　of　their　own　young　or　the　consumption　of　the　farmer's

family　requires；　and　they　produce　most　at　one　particular　season。

But　of　all　the　productions　of　land；　milk　is　perhaps　the　most

perishable。　In　the　warm　season；　when　it　is　most　abundant；　it　will

scarce　keep　four…and…twenty　hours。　The　farmer；　by　making　it　into

fresh　butter；　stores　a　small　part　of　it　for　a　week：　by　making　it

into　salt　butter；　for　a　year：　and　by　making　it　into　cheese；　he

stores　a　much　greater　part　of　it　for　several　years。　Part　of　all

these　is　reserved　for　the　use　of　his　own　family。　The　rest　goes　to

market；　in　order　to　find　the　best　price　which　is　to　be　had；　and

which　can　scarce　be　so　low　as　to　discourage　him　from　sending

thither　whatever　is　over　and　above　the　use　of　his　own　family。　If

it　is　very　low；　indeed；　he　will　be　likely　to　manage　his　dairy　in

a　very　slovenly　and　dirty　manner；　and　will　scarce　perhaps　think

it　worth　while　to　have　a　particular　room　or　building　on　purpose

for　it；　but　will　suffer　the　business　to　be　carried　on　amidst　the

smoke；　filth；　and　nastiness　of　his　own　kitchen；　as　was　the　case

of　almost　all　the　farmers'　dairies　in　Scotland　thirty　or　forty

years　ago；　and　as　is　the　case　of　many　of　them　still。　The　same

causes　which　gradually　raise　the　price　of　butcher's　meat；　the

increase　of　the　demand；　and；　in　consequence　of　the　improvement　of

the　country；　the　diminution　of　the　quantity　which　can　be　fed　at

little　or　no　expense；　raise；　in　the　same　manner；　that　of　the

produce　of　the　dairy；　of　which　the　price　naturally　connects　with

that　of　butcher's　meat；　or　with　the　expense　of　feeding　cattle。

The　increase　of　price　pays　for　more　labour；　care；　and

cleanliness。　The　dairy　becomes　more　worthy　of　the　farmer's

attention；　and　the　quality　of　its　produce　gradually　improves。　The

price　at　last　gets　so　high　that　it　becomes　worth　while　to　employ

some　of　the　most　fertile　and　best　cultivated　lands　in　feeding

cattle　merely　for　the　purpose　of　the　dairy；　and　when　it　has　got

to　this　height；　it　cannot　well　go　higher。　If　it　did；　more　land

would　soon　be　turned　to　this　purpose。　It　seems　to　have　got　to

this　height　through　the　greater　part　of　England；　where　much　good

land　is　commonly　employed　in　this　manner。　If　you　except　the

neighbourhood　of　a　few　considerable　towns；　it　seems　not　yet　to

have　got　to　this　height　anywhere　in　Scotland；　where　common

farmers　seldom　employ　much　good　land　in　raising　food　for　cattle

merely　for　the　purpose　of　the　dairy。　The　price　of　the　produce；

though　it　has　risen　very　considerably　within　these　few　years；　is

probably　still　too　low　to　admit　of　it。　The　inferiority　of　the

quality；　indeed；　compared　with　that　of　the　produce　of　English

dairies；　is　fully　equal　to　that　of　the　price。　But　this

inferiority　of　quality　is；　perhaps；　rather　the　effect　of　this

lowness　of　price　than　the　cause　of　it。　Though　the　quality　was

much　better；　the　greater　part　of　what　is　brought　to　market　could

not；　I　apprehend；　in　the　present　circumstances　of　the　country；　be

disposed　of　at　a　much　better　price；　and　the　present　price；　it　is

probable　would　not　pay　the　expense　of　the　land　and　labour

necessary　for　producing　a　much　better　quality。　Though　the　greater

part　of　England；　notwithstanding　the　superiority　of　price；　the

dairy　is　not　reckoned　a　more　profitable　employment　of　land　than

the　raising　of　corn；　or　the　fattening　of　cattle；　the　two　great

objects　of　agriculture。　Through　the　greater　part　of　Scotland；

therefore；　it　cannot　yet　be　even　so　profitable。

　　　　　The　lands　of　no　country；　it　is　evident；　can　ever　be

completely　cultivated　and　improved　till　once　the　price　of　every

produce；　which　human　industry　is　obliged　to　raise　upon　them；　has

got　so　high　as　to　pay　for　the　expense　of　complete　improvement　and

cultivation。　In　order　to　do　this；　the　price　of　each　particular

produce　must　be　sufficient；　first；　to　pay　the　rent　of　good　corn

land；　as　it　is　that　which　regulates　the　rent　of　the　greater　part

of　other　cultivated　land；　and；　secondly；　to　pay　the　labour　and

expense　of　the　farmer　as　well　as　they　are　commonly　paid　upon　good

corn　land；　or；　in　other　words；　to　replace　with　the　ordinary

profits　the　stock　which　he　employs　about　it。　This　rise　in　the

price　of　each　particular　produce　must　evidently　be　previous　to

the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　the　land　which　is　destined　for

raising　it。　Gain　is　the　end　of　all　improvement；　and　nothing　could

deserve　that　name　of　which　loss　was　to　be　the　necessary

consequence。　But　loss　must　be　the　necessary　consequence　of

improving　land　for　the　sake　of　a　produce　of　which　the　price　could

never　bring　back　the　expense。　If　the　complete　improvement　and

cultivation　of　the　country　be；　as　it　most　certainly　is；　the

greatest　of　all　public　advantages；　this　rise　in　the　price　of　all

those　different　sorts　of　rude　produce；　instead　of　being

considered　as　a　public　calamity；　ought　to　be　regarded　as　the

necessary　forerunner　and　attendant　of　the　greatest　of　all　public

advantages。

　　　　　This　rise；　too；　in　the　nominal　or　money…price　of　all　those

different　sorts　of　rude　produce　has　been　the　effect；　not　of　any

degradation　in　the　value　of　silver；　but　of　a　rise　in　their　real

price。　They　have　become　worth；　not　only　a　greater　quantity　of

silver；　but　a　greater　quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence　than

before。　As　it　costs　a　greater　quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence

to　bring　them　to　market；　so　when　they　are　brought　thither；　they

represent　or　are　equivalent　to　a　greater　quantity。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　THIRD　SORT　

　　　　　The　third　and　last　sort　of　rude　produce；　of　which　the　price

naturally　rises　in　the　progress　of　improvement；　is　that　in　which

the　efficacy　of　human　industry；　in　augmenting　the　quantity；　is

either　limited　or　uncertain。　Though　the　real　price　of　this　sort

of　rude　produce；　therefore；　naturally　tends　to　rise　in　the

progress　of　improvement；　yet；　according　as　different　accidents

happen　to　render　the　efforts　of　human　industry　more　or　less

successful　in　augmenting　the　quantity；　it　may　happen　sometimes

even　to　fall；　sometimes　to　continue　the　same　in　very　different

periods　of　improvement；　and　sometimes　to　rise　more　or　less　in　the

same　period。

　　　　　There　are　some　sorts　of　rude　produce　which　nature　has

rendered　a　kind　of　appendages　to　other　sorts；　so　that　the

quantity　of　the　one　which　any　country　can　afford；　is　necessarily

limited　by　that　of　the　other。　The　quantity　of　wool　or　of　raw

hides；　for　example；　which　any　country　can　afford　is　necessarily

limited　by　the　number　of　great　and　small　cattle　that　are　kept　in

it。　The　state　of　its　improvement；　and　the　nature　of　its

agriculture；　again　necessarily　determine　this　number。

　　　　　The　same　causes　which；　in　the　progress　of　improvement；

gradually　raise　the　price　of　butcher's　meat；　should　have　the　same

effect；　it　may　be　thought；　upon　the　prices　of　wool　and　raw　hides；

and　raise　them；　too；　nearly　in　the　same　proportion。　It　probably

would　be　so　if；　in　the　rude　beginnings　of　improvement；　the　market

for　the　latter　commodities　was　confined　within　as　narrow　bounds

as　that　for　the　former。　But　the　extent　of　their　respective

markets　is　commonly　extremely　different。

　　　　　The　market　for　butcher's　meat　is　almost　everywhere　confined

to　the　country　which　produces　it。　Ireland；　and　some　part　of

British　America　indeed；　carry　on　a　considerable　trade　in　salt

provisions；　but　they　are；　I　believe；　the　only　countries　in　the

commercial　world　which　do　so；　or　which　export　to　other　countries

any　considerable　part　of　their　butcher's　meat。

　　　　　The　market　for　wool　and　raw　hides；　on　the　contrary；　is　in

the　rude　beginnings　of　improvement　very　seldom　confined　to　the

country　which　produces　them。　They　can　easily　be　transported　to

distant　countries；　wool　without　any　preparation；　and　raw　hides

with　very　little：　and　as　they　are　the　materials　of　many

manufactures；　the　industry　of　other　countries　may　occasion　a

demand　for　them；　though　that　of　the　country　which　produces　them

might　not　occasion　any。

　　　　　In　countries　ill　cultivated；　and　therefore　but　thinly

inhabited；　the　price　of　the　wool　and　the　hide　bears　always　a　much

greater　proportion　to　that　of　the　whole　beast　than　in　countries

where；　improvement　and　population　being　further　advanced；　there

is　more　demand　for　butcher's　meat。　Mr。　Hume　observes　that　in　the

Saxon　times　the　fleece　was　estimated　at　two…fifths　of　the　value

of　the　whole　sheep；　and　that　this　was　much　above　the　proportion

of　its　present　estimation。　In　some　provinces　of　Spain；　I　have

been　assured；　the　sheep　is　frequently　killed　merely　for　the　sake

of　the　fleece　and　the　tallow。　The　carcase　is　often　left　to　rot

upon　the　ground；　or　to　be　devoured　by　beasts　and　birds　of　prey。

If　this　sometimes　happens　even　in　Spain；　it　happens　almost

constantly　in　Chili；　at　Buenos　Ayres；　and　in　many　other　parts　of

Spanish　America；　where　the　horned　cattle　are　almost　constantly

killed　me